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Wang S, Argikar UA, Cheruzel L, Cho S, Crouch RD, Dhaware D, Heck CJS, Johnson KM, Kalgutkar AS, King L, Liu J, Ma B, Maw H, Miller GP, Seneviratne HK, Takahashi RH, Wei C, Khojasteh SC. Bioactivation and reactivity research advances - 2022 year in review‡. Drug Metab Rev 2023; 55:267-300. [PMID: 37608698 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2023.2244193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
With the 50th year mark since the launch of Drug Metabolism and Disposition journal, the field of drug metabolism and bioactivation has advanced exponentially in the past decades (Guengerich 2023).This has, in a major part, been due to the continued advances across the whole spectrum of applied technologies in hardware, software, machine learning (ML), and artificial intelligence (AI). LC-MS platforms continue to evolve to support key applications in the field, and automation is also improving the accuracy, precision, and throughput of these supporting assays. In addition, sample generation and processing is being aided by increased diversity and quality of reagents and bio-matrices so that what is being analyzed is more relevant and translatable. The application of in silico platforms (applied software, ML, and AI) is also making great strides, and in tandem with the more traditional approaches mentioned previously, is significantly advancing our understanding of bioactivation pathways and how these play a role in toxicity. All of this continues to allow the area of bioactivation to evolve in parallel with associated fields to help bring novel or improved medicines to patients with urgent or unmet needs.Shuai Wang and Cyrus Khojasteh, on behalf of the authors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Wang
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Upendra A Argikar
- Non-clinical Development, Bill and Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lionel Cheruzel
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sungjoon Cho
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Rachel D Crouch
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lipscomb University College of Pharmacy, Nashville, TN, USA
| | | | - Carley J S Heck
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Groton, CT, USA
| | - Kevin M Johnson
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Inotiv, Maryland Heights, MO, USA
| | - Amit S Kalgutkar
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lloyd King
- Quantitative Drug Discovery, UCB Biopharma UK, Slough, UK
| | - Joyce Liu
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Bin Ma
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Hlaing Maw
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, CT, USA
| | - Grover P Miller
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Herana Kamal Seneviratne
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Cong Wei
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Biogen Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - S Cyrus Khojasteh
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA
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Koubek EJ, Buhrow SA, Safgren SL, Jia L, Goetz MP, Ames MM, Reid JM. Bioavailability and Pharmacokinetics of Endoxifen in Female Rats and Dogs: Evidence to Support the Use of Endoxifen to Overcome the Limitations of CYP2D6-Mediated Tamoxifen Metabolism. Drug Metab Dispos 2023; 51:183-192. [PMID: 36351835 PMCID: PMC9900863 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.122.000929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Endoxifen (ENDX) is an active metabolite of tamoxifen (TAM), a drug commonly used for the treatment of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer and metabolized by CYP2D6. Genetic or drug-induced reductions in CYP2D6 activity decrease plasma ENDX concentrations and TAM efficacy. It was proposed that direct oral administration of ENDX would circumvent the issues related to metabolic activation of TAM by CYP2D6 and increase patient response. Here, we characterized the pharmacokinetics and oral bioavailability of ENDX in female rats and dogs. Additionally, ENDX exposure was compared following equivalent doses of ENDX and TAM. ENDX exposure was 100-fold and 10-fold greater in rats and dogs, respectively, with ENDX administration compared with an equivalent dose of TAM. In single-dose administration studies, the terminal elimination half-life and plasma clearance values were 6.3 hours and 2.4 L/h per kg in rats given 2 mg/kg i.v. ENDX and 9.2 hours and 0.4 L/h/kg in dogs given 0.5 mg/kg i.v. ENDX, respectively. Plasma concentrations above 0.1 µM and 1 µM ENDX were achieved with 20-mg/kg and 200-mg/kg doses in rats, and concentrations above 1 µM and 10 µM were achieved with 15-mg/kg and 100-mg/kg doses in dogs. Oral absorption of ENDX was linear in rats and dogs, with bioavailability greater than 67% in rats and greater than 50% in dogs. In repeated-dose administration studies, ENDX peak plasma concentrations reached 9 µM in rats and 20 µM in dogs following four daily doses of 200 mg/kg or 30 mg/kg ENDX, respectively. The results indicate that ENDX has high oral bioavailability, and therapeutic concentrations were maintained after repeated dosing. Oral dosing of ENDX resulted in substantially higher ENDX concentrations than a similar dose of TAM. These data support the ongoing development of ENDX to overcome the limitations associated with CYP2D6-mediated metabolism of TAM in humans. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study presents for the first time the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of endoxifen and three key tamoxifen metabolites following repeated oral dosing in female rats and dogs. This study reports that endoxifen has high oral bioavailability, and therapeutic concentrations were maintained after repeated dosing. On the basis of these data, Z-endoxifen (Z-ENDX) was developed as a drug based upon the hypothesis that oral administration of Z-ENDX would overcome the limitations of CYP2D6 metabolism required for full metabolic activation of tamoxifen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Koubek
- Departments of Oncology (E.J.K., S.A.B., S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.) and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; and National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland (L.J.)
| | - Sarah A Buhrow
- Departments of Oncology (E.J.K., S.A.B., S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.) and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; and National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland (L.J.)
| | - Stephanie L Safgren
- Departments of Oncology (E.J.K., S.A.B., S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.) and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; and National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland (L.J.)
| | - Lee Jia
- Departments of Oncology (E.J.K., S.A.B., S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.) and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; and National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland (L.J.)
| | - Matthew P Goetz
- Departments of Oncology (E.J.K., S.A.B., S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.) and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; and National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland (L.J.)
| | - Matthew M Ames
- Departments of Oncology (E.J.K., S.A.B., S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.) and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; and National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland (L.J.)
| | - Joel M Reid
- Departments of Oncology (E.J.K., S.A.B., S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.) and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (S.L.S., M.P.G., M.M.A., J.M.R.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota; and National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland (L.J.)
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Alarcan J, Dubreil E, Huguet A, Aráoz R, Brée F, Bouaita B, Hurtaud-Pessel D, Braeuning A, Hessel-Pras S, Lampen A, Le Hégarat L, Fessard V. Metabolism of the lipophilic phycotoxin 13-Desmethylspirolide C using human and rat in vitro liver models. Toxicol Lett 2019; 307:17-25. [PMID: 30825503 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/23/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
13-Desmethylspirolide C (13-SPX-C) is a phycotoxin produced by dinoflagellates which can accumulate in shellfish. 13-SPX-C induces neurotoxic effects in rodents through blockade of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. As no human intoxication has been to date attributed to the consumption of 13-SPX-C-contaminated seafood, this toxin is not regulated according to the Codex Alimentarius. Nevertheless, shellfish consumers can be exposed to 13-SPX-C via shellfish consumption. In order to follow the fate of the toxin after ingestion and to verify whether metabolic detoxification could explain the lack of human intoxications, we assessed the metabolism of 13-SPX-C using several in vitro liver systems. First, both phase I and II reactions occurring with rat and human liver S9 fractions were screened. Our results indicated that 13-SPX-C was almost completely metabolized with both rat and human liver S9. Using a receptor binding assay towards nicotinic acetylcholine receptors we demonstrated that the resulting metabolites showed less affinity towards nicotinic acetylcholine receptors than 13-SPX-C. Finally, we showed that 13-SPX-C induced a pronounced increase of gene expression of the drug-metabolizing enzyme cytochrome P450 (CYP) CYP1A2. The role of this CYP in 13-SPX-C metabolism was clarified using an innovative in vitro tool, CYP1A2-Silensomes™. In summary, this study highlights that liver first-pass metabolism can contribute to the detoxification of 13-SPX-C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy Alarcan
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France; BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max Dohrn Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Estelle Dubreil
- Analysis of Residues and Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Antoine Huguet
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Romulo Aráoz
- CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences (Neuro-PSI), UMR9197, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, France; CEA/DRF/JOLIOT/SIMOPRO, Université Paris-Saclay, 91191, Gif sur Yvette, France.
| | - Françoise Brée
- Eurosafe, Parc d'Affaires La Bretêche, 35760, Saint Grégoire, France.
| | - Belkacem Bouaita
- Biopredic International, Parc d'Affaires La Bretêche, 35760, Saint Grégoire, France.
| | - Dominique Hurtaud-Pessel
- Analysis of Residues and Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Albert Braeuning
- BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max Dohrn Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Stefanie Hessel-Pras
- BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max Dohrn Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Alfonso Lampen
- BfR, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety, Max Dohrn Strasse 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Ludovic Le Hégarat
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
| | - Valérie Fessard
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, ANSES, Fougères, 35306, France.
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Earla R, Kumar S, Wang L, Bosinger S, Li J, Shah A, Gangwani M, Nookala A, Liu X, Cao L, Jackson A, Silverstein PS, Fox HS, Li W, Kumar A. Enhanced methamphetamine metabolism in rhesus macaque as compared with human: an analysis using a novel method of liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry, kinetic study, and substrate docking. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 42:2097-108. [PMID: 25301936 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.114.059378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Methamphetamine (MA), which remains one of the widely used drugs of abuse, is metabolized by the cytochrome P450 (P450) family of enzymes in humans. However, metabolism of methamphetamine in macaques is poorly understood. Therefore, we first developed and validated a very sensitive liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method using solid phase extraction of rhesus plasma with a lower limit of quantitation at 1.09 ng/ml for MA and its metabolites, 4-hydroxy methamphetamine (4-OH MA), amphetamine (AM), 4-OH amphetamine (4-OH AM), and norephedrine. We then analyzed plasma samples of MA-treated rhesus, which showed >10-fold higher concentrations of AM (∼29 ng/ml) and 4-OH AM (∼28 ng/ml) than MA (∼2 ng/ml). Because the plasma levels of MA metabolites in rhesus were much higher than in human samples, we examined MA metabolism in human and rhesus microsomes. Interestingly, the results showed that AM and 4-OH AM were formed more rapidly and that the catalytic efficiency (Vmax/Km) for the formation of AM was ∼8-fold higher in rhesus than in human microsomes. We further examined the differences in these kinetic characteristics using three selective inhibitors of each human CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 enzymes. The results showed that each of these inhibitors inhibited both d- and l-MA metabolism by 20%-60% in human microsomes but not in rhesus microsomes. The differences between human and rhesus CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 enzymes were further assessed by docking studies for both d and l-MA. In conclusion, our results demonstrated an enhanced MA metabolism in rhesus compared with humans, which is likely to be caused by differences in MA-metabolizing P450 enzymes between these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravinder Earla
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Santosh Kumar
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Lei Wang
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Steven Bosinger
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Junhao Li
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Ankit Shah
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Mohitkumar Gangwani
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Anantha Nookala
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Xun Liu
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Lu Cao
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Austin Jackson
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Peter S Silverstein
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Howard S Fox
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Weihua Li
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
| | - Anil Kumar
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri (R.E., A.S., M.K.G., A.N., X.L., L.C., A.J., P.S.S., A.K.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Sciences, Memphis, Tennessee (S.K.); Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China (L.W., J.L., W.L.); Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia (S.B.); University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska (H.S.F.)
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