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Falendysz EA, Calhoun DM, Smith CA, Sleeman JM. Outside the Box: Working With Wildlife in Biocontainment. ILAR J 2021; 61:72-85. [PMID: 34428796 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilab025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Research with captive wildlife in Animal Biosafety Level 2 (ABSL2) and 3 (ABSL3) facilities is becoming increasingly necessary as emerging and re-emerging diseases involving wildlife have increasing impacts on human, animal, and environmental health. Utilizing wildlife species in a research facility often requires outside the box thinking with specialized knowledge, practices, facilities, and equipment. The USGS National Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) houses an ABSL3 facility dedicated to understanding wildlife diseases and developing tools to mitigate their impacts on animal and human health. This review presents considerations for utilizing captive wildlife for infectious disease studies, including, husbandry, animal welfare, veterinary care, and biosafety. Examples are drawn from primary literature review and collective 40-year experience of the NWHC. Working with wildlife in ABSL2 and ABSL3 facilities differs from laboratory animals in that typical laboratory housing systems, husbandry practices, and biosafety practices are not designed for work with wildlife. This requires thoughtful adaptation of standard equipment and practices, invention of customized solutions and development of appropriate enrichment plans using the natural history of the species and the microbiological characteristics of introduced and native pathogens. Ultimately, this task requires critical risk assessment, understanding of the physical and psychological needs of diverse species, creativity, innovation, and flexibility. Finally, continual reassessment and improvement are imperative in this constantly changing specialty area of infectious disease and environmental hazard research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Falendysz
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center in Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Dana M Calhoun
- Department of EBIO, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Carrie A Smith
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center in Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jonathan M Sleeman
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center in Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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2
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Begeman L, Suu-Ire R, Banyard AC, Drosten C, Eggerbauer E, Freuling CM, Gibson L, Goharriz H, Horton DL, Jennings D, Marston DA, Ntiamoa-Baidu Y, Riesle Sbarbaro S, Selden D, Wise EL, Kuiken T, Fooks AR, Müller T, Wood JLN, Cunningham AA. Experimental Lagos bat virus infection in straw-colored fruit bats: A suitable model for bat rabies in a natural reservoir species. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008898. [PMID: 33320860 PMCID: PMC7771871 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal neurologic disease caused by lyssavirus infection. Bats are important natural reservoir hosts of various lyssaviruses that can be transmitted to people. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of rabies in bats are poorly understood, making it difficult to prevent zoonotic transmission. To further our understanding of lyssavirus pathogenesis in a natural bat host, an experimental model using straw-colored fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) and Lagos bat virus, an endemic lyssavirus in this species, was developed. To determine the lowest viral dose resulting in 100% productive infection, bats in five groups (four bats per group) were inoculated intramuscularly with one of five doses, ranging from 100.1 to 104.1 median tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50). More bats died due to the development of rabies after the middle dose (102.1 TCID50, 4/4 bats) than after lower (101.1, 2/4; 101.1, 2/4) or higher (103.1, 2/4; 104.1, 2/4) doses of virus. In the two highest dose groups, 4/8 bats developed rabies. Of those bats that remained healthy 3/4 bats seroconverted, suggesting that high antigen loads can trigger a strong immune response that abrogates a productive infection. In contrast, in the two lowest dose groups, 3/8 bats developed rabies, 1/8 remained healthy and seroconverted and 4/8 bats remained healthy and did not seroconvert, suggesting these doses are too low to reliably induce infection. The main lesion in all clinically affected bats was meningoencephalitis associated with lyssavirus-positive neurons. Lyssavirus antigen was detected in tongue epithelium (5/11 infected bats) rather than in salivary gland epithelium (0/11), suggesting viral excretion via the tongue. Thus, intramuscular inoculation of 102.1 TCID50 of Lagos bat virus into straw-colored fruit bats is a suitable model for lyssavirus associated bat rabies in a natural reservoir host, and can help with the investigation of lyssavirus infection dynamics in bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lineke Begeman
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail: (LB); (AAC)
| | - Richard Suu-Ire
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Drosten
- Institute of Virology, Medical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Elisa Eggerbauer
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
- Thüringer Landesamt für Verbraucherschutz, Bad Langensalza, Thüringen, Germany
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | - Louise Gibson
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hooman Goharriz
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel L. Horton
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Daisy Jennings
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Denise A. Marston
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu
- Centre for African Wetlands / Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Silke Riesle Sbarbaro
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, United Kingdom
- University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David Selden
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Emma L. Wise
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Thijs Kuiken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anthony R. Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | | | - Andrew A. Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (LB); (AAC)
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3
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Hirsbrunner A, Rodriguez-Duran A, Jarvis JA, Rudd RJ, Davis AD. Detection of rabies viral neutralizing antibodies in the Puerto Rican Brachyphylla cavernarum. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2020; 10:1840773. [PMID: 33224448 PMCID: PMC7598998 DOI: 10.1080/20008686.2020.1840773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine if Puerto Rican bats had previous exposure to rabies virus based on viral neutralizing antibodies. Our results demonstrate that 6.5% of the bats in this study had some exposure to rabies virus. The route of exposure is unknown but may have occurred following interaction with a rabid terrestrial animal or an unidentified bat rabies virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Hirsbrunner
- Wadsworth Center Rabies Laboratory, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY, USA
| | - Armando Rodriguez-Duran
- Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico, Bayamón, Mata de Plátano Field Station, Bayamón, Puerto Rico
| | - Jodie A Jarvis
- Wadsworth Center Rabies Laboratory, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY, USA
| | - Robert J Rudd
- Wadsworth Center Rabies Laboratory, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY, USA
| | - April D Davis
- Wadsworth Center Rabies Laboratory, New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, NY, USA
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4
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Begeman L, Kooi EA, van Weezep E, van de Bildt MWG, Reusken CBEM, Lina PHC, Koopmans MPG, van den Brand JMA, Kuiken T. Faeces as a novel material to estimate lyssavirus prevalence in bat populations. Zoonoses Public Health 2019; 67:198-202. [PMID: 31814288 PMCID: PMC7027462 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is caused by infection with a lyssavirus. Bat rabies is of concern for both public health and bat conservation. The current method for lyssavirus prevalence studies in bat populations is by oral swabbing, which is invasive for the bats, dangerous for handlers, time-consuming and expensive. In many situations, such sampling is not feasible, and hence, our understanding of epidemiology of bat rabies is limited. Faeces are usually easy to collect from bat colonies without disturbing the bats and thus could be a practical and feasible material for lyssavirus prevalence studies. To further explore this idea, we performed virological analysis on faecal pellets and oral swabs of seven serotine bats (Eptesicus serotinus) that were positive for European bat 1 lyssavirus in the brain. We also performed immunohistochemical and virological analyses on digestive tract samples of these bats to determine potential sources of lyssavirus in the faeces. We found that lyssavirus detection by RT-qPCR was nearly as sensitive in faecal pellets (6/7 bats positive, 86%) as in oral swabs (7/7 bats positive, 100%). The likely source of lyssavirus in the faeces was virus excreted into the oral cavity from the salivary glands (5/6 bats positive by immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR) or tongue (3/4 bats positive by immunohistochemistry) and swallowed with saliva. Virus could not be isolated from any of the seven faecal pellets, suggesting the lyssavirus detected in faeces is not infectious. Lyssavirus detection in the majority of faecal pellets of infected bats shows that this novel material should be further explored for lyssavirus prevalence studies in bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lineke Begeman
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Engbert A Kooi
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands.,Health and Youth Care Inspectorate, National Authority for Containment, Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Erik van Weezep
- Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Marco W G van de Bildt
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Chantal B E M Reusken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Centre for Infectious Disease Control-RIVM, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marion P G Koopmans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Thijs Kuiken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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5
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Rabies Outbreak in Captive Big Brown Bats ( Eptesicus fuscus) Used in a White-Nose Syndrome Vaccine Trial. J Wildl Dis 2019. [PMID: 31295082 DOI: 10.7589/2018-10-258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
An outbreak of rabies occurred in a captive colony of wild-caught big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus). Five of 27 bats exhibited signs of rabies virus infection 22-51 d after capture or 18-22 d after contact with the index case. Rabid bats showed weight loss, aggression, increased vocalization, hypersalivation, and refusal of food. Antigenic typing and virus sequencing confirmed that all five bats were infected with an identical rabies virus variant that circulates in E. fuscus in the US. Two bats with no signs of rabies virus infection were seropositive for rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies; the brains of these bats had no detectable viral proteins by the direct fluorescence antibody test. We suspect bat-to-bat transmission of rabies virus occurred among our bats because all rabies-infected bats were confined to the cage housing the index case and were infected with viruses having identical sequences of the entire rabies nucleoprotein gene. This outbreak illustrates the risk of rabies virus infection in captive bats and highlights the need for researchers using bats to assume that all wild bats could be infected with rabies virus.
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6
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Doysabas KCC, Oba M, Furuta M, Iida K, Omatsu T, Furuya T, Okada T, Sutummaporn K, Shimoda H, Wong ML, Wu CH, Ohmori Y, Kobayashi R, Hengjan Y, Yonemitsu K, Kuwata R, Kim YK, Han SH, Sohn JH, Han SH, Suzuki K, Kimura J, Maeda K, Oh HS, Endoh D, Mizutani T, Hondo E. Encephalomyocarditis virus is potentially derived from eastern bent-wing bats living in East Asian countries. Virus Res 2018; 259:62-67. [PMID: 30391400 PMCID: PMC7114854 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
EMCV genome was widely found in fecal guanos in Taiwanese, Korean, and Japanese caves. Miniopterus fuliginosus is the main source of the fecal guano. It is possible that Miniopterus fuliginosus is one of the natural hosts of EMCV in East Asia.
Bats are reservoir hosts of many zoonotic viruses and identification of viruses that they carry is important. This study aimed to use high throughput screening to identify the viruses in fecal guano of Taiwanese insectivorous bats caves in order to obtain more information on bat-derived pathogenic viruses in East Asia. Guano samples were collected from two caves in Taiwan, pooled, and then subjected to Multiplex PCR-based next generation sequencing for viral identification. Subsequently, encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) sequence was detected and confirmed by reverse transcription PCR. EMCV is considered as rodent virus and thus, animal species identification through cytochrome oxidase I (COI) barcoding was further done to identify the viral source. Finally, determination of distribution and verification of the presence of EMCV in guano obtained from Japanese and South Korean caves was also done. We concluded that the guano collected was not contaminated with the excrement of rodents which were reported and presumed to live in Taiwan. Also, EMCV genome fragments were found in guanos of Japanese and South Korean caves. It is possible that the eastern bent-wing bat (Miniopterus fuliginosus) is one of the natural hosts of EMCV in East Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla Cristine C Doysabas
- Laboratory of Animal Morphology, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Mami Oba
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Cooperative Department of Veterinary Medicine, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan
| | - Masaya Furuta
- Laboratory of Animal Morphology, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Keisuke Iida
- Laboratory of Animal Morphology, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Omatsu
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Cooperative Department of Veterinary Medicine, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Furuya
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Cooperative Department of Veterinary Medicine, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan
| | - Takashi Okada
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Kripitch Sutummaporn
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Cooperative Department of Veterinary Medicine, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan
| | | | | | | | - Yasushige Ohmori
- Laboratory of Animal Morphology, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Animal Morphology, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yupadee Hengjan
- Laboratory of Animal Morphology, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | | | | | - Yoo-Kyung Kim
- Institute of Science Education, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea
| | - Sang-Hyun Han
- Institute of Science Education, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea
| | - Joon-Hyuk Sohn
- Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy and Cell Biology and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sang-Hoon Han
- Natural Institute of Biological Resources, South Korea
| | | | - Junpei Kimura
- Laboratory of Veterinary Anatomy and Cell Biology and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Ken Maeda
- Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Hong-Shik Oh
- Institute of Science Education, Jeju National University, Jeju, South Korea
| | - Daiji Endoh
- Department of Veterinary Radiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, 582 Midorimachi, Bunkyodai, Ebetsu-shi 069-8501, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Mizutani
- Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Cooperative Department of Veterinary Medicine, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan
| | - Eiichi Hondo
- Laboratory of Animal Morphology, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan.
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7
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Suu-Ire R, Begeman L, Banyard AC, Breed AC, Drosten C, Eggerbauer E, Freuling CM, Gibson L, Goharriz H, Horton DL, Jennings D, Kuzmin IV, Marston D, Ntiamoa-Baidu Y, Riesle Sbarbaro S, Selden D, Wise EL, Kuiken T, Fooks AR, Müller T, Wood JLN, Cunningham AA. Pathogenesis of bat rabies in a natural reservoir: Comparative susceptibility of the straw-colored fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) to three strains of Lagos bat virus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006311. [PMID: 29505617 PMCID: PMC5854431 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal neurologic disease caused by lyssavirus infection. People are infected through contact with infected animals. The relative increase of human rabies acquired from bats calls for a better understanding of lyssavirus infections in their natural hosts. So far, there is no experimental model that mimics natural lyssavirus infection in the reservoir bat species. Lagos bat virus is a lyssavirus that is endemic in straw-colored fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) in Africa. Here we compared the susceptibility of these bats to three strains of Lagos bat virus (from Senegal, Nigeria, and Ghana) by intracranial inoculation. To allow comparison between strains, we ensured the same titer of virus was inoculated in the same location of the brain of each bat. All bats (n = 3 per strain) were infected, and developed neurological signs, and fatal meningoencephalitis with lyssavirus antigen expression in neurons. There were three main differences among the groups. First, time to death was substantially shorter in the Senegal and Ghana groups (4 to 6 days) than in the Nigeria group (8 days). Second, each virus strain produced a distinct clinical syndrome. Third, the spread of virus to peripheral tissues, tested by hemi-nested reverse transcriptase PCR, was frequent (3 of 3 bats) and widespread (8 to 10 tissues positive of 11 tissues examined) in the Ghana group, was frequent and less widespread in the Senegal group (3/3 bats, 3 to 6 tissues positive), and was rare and restricted in the Nigeria group (1/3 bats, 2 tissues positive). Centrifugal spread of virus from brain to tissue of excretion in the oral cavity is required to enable lyssavirus transmission. Therefore, the Senegal and Ghana strains seem most suitable for further pathogenesis, and for transmission, studies in the straw-colored fruit bat. Rabies is a neurologic disease that causes severe suffering and is almost always fatal. The disease is caused by infection with a virus of the genus Lyssavirus, of which 16 species are known. These viruses replicate in neurons, are excreted in the mouth, and are transmitted by bites. Dogs are the most important source of rabies for humans, but recently there is a relative increase in people contracting the disease from bats. To better understand the development of human rabies caused by these bat-acquired viruses, we need to study this disease in its bat host under controlled circumstances. To do so, we chose a naturally occurring lyssavirus–host combination: Lagos bat virus in straw-colored fruit bats. We compared three available strains of Lagos bat virus (all isolated from brains of this bat species) for their ability to mimic a natural infection. We used intracranial inoculation to ensure infection of the brain. All three strains infected brain neurons, resulting in fatal neurologic disease, however only two of the strains showed the ability to reach the site of excretion—the mouth—and were considered a suitable virus to use for further studies of this disease in bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Suu-Ire
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Veterinary Services Department, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Accra, Ghana
- Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission, Accra, Ghana
| | - Lineke Begeman
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew C. Breed
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Drosten
- Institute of Virology, Medical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Elisa Eggerbauer
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | - Conrad M. Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | - Louise Gibson
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hooman Goharriz
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel L. Horton
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Daisy Jennings
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Ivan V. Kuzmin
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Denise Marston
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu
- Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Silke Riesle Sbarbaro
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David Selden
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Emma L. Wise
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Thijs Kuiken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anthony R. Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector Borne Disease Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Island of Riems, Germany
| | - James L. N. Wood
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew A. Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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8
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Banerjee A, Misra V, Schountz T, Baker ML. Tools to study pathogen-host interactions in bats. Virus Res 2018; 248:5-12. [PMID: 29454637 PMCID: PMC7114677 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Bats are important reservoir hosts for emerging zoonotic viruses. Viruses detected in bats are difficult to isolate using traditional cell lines. Bat cell lines provide critical tools to dissect host pathogen interactions. Little is known about immune cell populations and their responses in bats. Sharing reagents and cell lines will accelerate research and virus discovery.
Bats are natural reservoirs for a variety of emerging viruses that cause significant disease in humans and domestic animals yet rarely cause clinical disease in bats. The co-evolutionary history of bats with viruses has been hypothesized to have shaped the bat-virus relationship, allowing both to exist in equilibrium. Progress in understanding bat-virus interactions and the isolation of bat-borne viruses has been accelerated in recent years by the development of susceptible bat cell lines. Viral sequences similar to severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus (SARS-CoV) have been detected in bats, and filoviruses such as Marburg virus have been isolated from bats, providing definitive evidence for the role of bats as the natural host reservoir. Although viruses can be readily detected in bats using molecular approaches, virus isolation is far more challenging. One of the limitations in using traditional culture systems from non-reservoir species is that cell types and culture conditions may not be compatible for isolation of bat-borne viruses. There is, therefore, a need to develop additional bat cell lines that correspond to different cell types, including less represented cell types such as immune cells, and culture them under more physiologically relevant conditions to study virus host interactions and for virus isolation. In this review, we highlight the current progress in understanding bat-virus interactions in bat cell line systems and some of the challenges and limitations associated with cell lines. Future directions to address some of these challenges to better understand host-pathogen interactions in these intriguing mammals are also discussed, not only in relation to viruses but also other pathogens carried by bats including bacteria and fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arinjay Banerjee
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
| | - Vikram Misra
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
| | - Tony Schountz
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA
| | - Michelle L Baker
- CSIRO, Health and Biosecurity Business Unit, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Australia.
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9
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Obregón-Morales C, Aguilar-Setién Á, Perea Martínez L, Galvez-Romero G, Martínez-Martínez FO, Aréchiga-Ceballos N. Experimental infection of Artibeus intermedius with a vampire bat rabies virus. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2017; 52:43-47. [PMID: 28673461 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2017.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Experimental infection of Artibeus intermedius, the great fruit-eating bat, was performed with vampire bat rabies isolates. Bats (n=35) were captured in the wild and quarantined prior to experimental infection. No rabies antibodies were detected by rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) prior to infection. Three doses of rabies virus (RV) and three different routes of infection were used. One out of 35 bats died without showing any clinical signs at day 14 and was positive for rabies. None of the 34 other bats showed clinical signs for rabies, but high antibody titers were detected post-inoculation, suggesting either innate immune response to the vampire bat rabies virus or possible pre-exposure to RV and inoculation leading to a booster effect. Rabies virus was detected by hemi-nested RT-PCR (hnRT-PCR) in the brain (n=3), stomach (n=1) of bats that were negative by immunofluorescence and that survived rabies infection. The bat that died on day 14 was positive by hnRT-PCR on the brain, heart and liver. These results suggest that either previous non-lethal exposure to RV or natural low susceptibility to vampire bat viruses somehow protected Artibeus intermedius from clinical rabies infection leading to a marginal lethality effect on this bats species population in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cirani Obregón-Morales
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Álvaro Aguilar-Setién
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Leonardo Perea Martínez
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Guillermo Galvez-Romero
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Flor Olivia Martínez-Martínez
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunología, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Nidia Aréchiga-Ceballos
- Laboratorio de Rabia, Instituto de Diagnóstico y Referencia Epidemiológicos, Mexico City, Mexico.
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Overwintering of Rabies Virus in Silver Haired Bats (Lasionycteris noctivagans). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155542. [PMID: 27195489 PMCID: PMC4873251 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Silver-haired bats, (Lasionycteris noctivagans) are semi-colonial, migratory tree bats that have infrequent contact with humans. Despite the species rarity, the L. noctivagans rabies variant is the most commonly reported rabies virus variant (RABV) in domestically acquired human rabies cases in the US. Unlike big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) and little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus), L. noctivagans are not considered true hibernators. It is unknown if RABV can overwinter in hibernating L. noctivagans or is only maintained in members of this taxa that migrate to warmer climates. To better understand RABV overwintering in this species, L. noctivagans were inoculated intramuscularly with either a homologous RABV (L. noctivagans Virus 1) or one of two heterologous RABV (Eptesicus fuscus Virus 2 and Myotis lucifugus Virus 1). Five days following inoculation, L. noctivagans were placed in a hibernation chamber for 6 weeks. Our results demonstrate that rabies virus can overwinter in L. noctivagans yet the incubation period was extended 6 weeks when compared to bats maintained at ambient temperatures. Additionally, we found that the longer the incubation period, the greater the viral dissemination to the salivary glands. Similar to our previous studies, L. noctivagans were most susceptible to a homologous variant. In summary, we found that RABV incubation is extended following a subcutaneous exposure or maintenance in hibernation and longer incubation times increase dissemination and potential for transmission.
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Davis BM, Rall GF, Schnell MJ. Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Rabies Virus (But Were Afraid to Ask). Annu Rev Virol 2015; 2:451-71. [PMID: 26958924 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-virology-100114-055157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The cultural impact of rabies, the fatal neurological disease caused by infection with rabies virus, registers throughout recorded history. Although rabies has been the subject of large-scale public health interventions, chiefly through vaccination efforts, the disease continues to take the lives of about 40,000-70,000 people per year, roughly 40% of whom are children. Most of these deaths occur in resource-poor countries, where lack of infrastructure prevents timely reporting and postexposure prophylaxis and the ubiquity of domestic and wild animal hosts makes eradication unlikely. Moreover, although the disease is rarer than other human infections such as influenza, the prognosis following a bite from a rabid animal is poor: There is currently no effective treatment that will save the life of a symptomatic rabies patient. This review focuses on the major unanswered research questions related to rabies virus pathogenesis, especially those connecting the disease progression of rabies with the complex dysfunction caused by the virus in infected cells. The recent applications of cutting-edge research strategies to this question are described in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Glenn F Rall
- Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19111
| | - Matthias J Schnell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and.,Jefferson Vaccine Center, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19107; .,Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19111
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12
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Susceptibility and pathogenesis of little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) to heterologous and homologous rabies viruses. J Virol 2013; 87:9008-15. [PMID: 23741002 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03554-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies virus (RABV) maintenance in bats is not well understood. Big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus), little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus), and Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) are the most common bats species in the United States. These colonial bat species also have the most frequent contact with humans and domestic animals. However, the silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) RABV is associated with the majority of human rabies virus infections in the United States and Canada. This is of interest because silver-haired bats are more solitary bats with infrequent human interaction. Our goal was to determine the likelihood of a colonial bat species becoming infected with and transmitting a heterologous RABV. To ascertain the potential of heterologous RABV infection in colonial bat species, little brown bats were inoculated with a homologous RABV or one of two heterologous RABVs. Additionally, to determine if the route of exposure influenced the disease process, bats were inoculated either intramuscularly (i.m.) or subcutaneously (s.c.) with a homologous or heterologous RABV. Our results demonstrate that intramuscular inoculation results in a more rapid progression of disease onset, whereas the incubation time in bats inoculated s.c. is significantly longer. Additionally, cross protection was not consistently achieved in bats previously inoculated with a heterologous RABV following a challenge with a homologous RABV 6 months later. Finally, bats that developed rabies following s.c. inoculation were significantly more likely to shed virus in their saliva and demonstrated increased viral dissemination. In summary, bats inoculated via the s.c. route are more likely to shed virus, thus increasing the likelihood of transmission.
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