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Shaw Stewart PD, Bach JL. Temperature dependent viral tropism: understanding viral seasonality and pathogenicity as applied to the avoidance and treatment of endemic viral respiratory illnesses. Rev Med Virol 2022; 32:e2241. [PMID: 33942417 PMCID: PMC8209954 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
This review seeks to explain three features of viral respiratory illnesses that have perplexed generations of virologists: (1) the seasonal timing of respiratory illness and the rapid response of outbreaks to weather, specifically temperature; (2) the common viruses causing respiratory illness worldwide, including year-round disease in the Tropics; (3) the rapid arrival and termination of epidemics caused by influenza and other viruses. The inadequacy of the popular explanations of seasonality is discussed, and a simple hypothesis is proposed, called temperature dependent viral tropism (TDVT), that is compatible with the above features of respiratory illness. TDVT notes that viruses can spread more effectively if they moderate their pathogenicity (thereby maintaining host mobility) and suggests that endemic respiratory viruses accomplish this by developing thermal sensitivity within a range that supports organ-specific viral tropism within the human body, whereby they replicate most rapidly at temperatures below body temperature. This can confine them to the upper respiratory tract and allow them to avoid infecting the lungs, heart, gut etc. Biochemical and tissue-culture studies show that 'wild' respiratory viruses show such natural thermal sensitivity. The typical early autumn surge of colds and the occurrence of respiratory illness in the Tropics year-round at intermediate levels are explained by the tendency for strains to adapt their thermal sensitivity to their local climate and season. TDVT has important practical implications for preventing and treating respiratory illness including Covid-19. It is testable with many options for experiments to increase our understanding of viral seasonality and pathogenicity.
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Gale P. How virus size and attachment parameters affect the temperature sensitivity of virus binding to host cells: Predictions of a thermodynamic model for arboviruses and HIV. MICROBIAL RISK ANALYSIS 2020; 15:100104. [PMID: 32292808 PMCID: PMC7110232 DOI: 10.1016/j.mran.2020.100104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Virus binding to host cells involves specific interactions between viral (glyco)proteins (GP) and host cell surface receptors (Cr) (protein or sialic acid (SA)). The magnitude of the enthalpy of association changes with temperature according to the change in heat capacity (ΔCp) on GP/Cr binding, being little affected for avian influenza virus (AIV) haemagglutinin (HA) binding to SA (ΔCp = 0 kJ/mol/K) but greatly affected for HIV gp120 binding to CD4 receptor (ΔCp = -5.0 kJ/mol/K). A thermodynamic model developed here predicts that values of ΔCp from 0 to ~-2.0 kJ/mol/K have relatively little impact on the temperature sensitivity of the number of mosquito midgut cells with bound arbovirus, while intermediate values of ΔCp of ~-3.0 kJ/mol/K give a peak binding at a temperature of ~20 °C as observed experimentally for Western equine encephalitis virus. More negative values of ΔCp greatly decrease arbovirus binding at temperatures below ~20 °C. Thus to promote transmission at low temperatures, arboviruses may benefit from ΔCp ~ 0 kJ/mol/K as for HA/SA and it is interesting that bluetongue virus binds to SA in midge midguts. Large negative values of ΔCp as for HIV gp120:CD4 diminish binding at 37 °C. Of greater importance, however, is the decrease in entropy of the whole virus (ΔSa_immob) on its immobilisation on the host cell surface. ΔSa_immob presents a repulsive force which the enthalpy-driven GP/Cr interactions weakened at higher temperatures struggle to overcome. ΔSa_immob is more negative (less favourable) for larger diameter viruses which therefore show diminished binding at higher temperatures than smaller viruses. It is proposed that small size phenotype through a less negative ΔSa_immob is selected for viruses infecting warmer hosts thus explaining the observation that virion volume decreases with increasing host temperature from 0 °C to 40 °C in the case of dsDNA viruses. Compared to arboviruses which also infect warm-blooded vertebrates, HIV is large at 134 nm diameter and thus would have a large negative ΔSa_immob which would diminish its binding at human body temperature. It is proposed that prior non-specific binding of HIV through attachment factors takes much of the entropy loss for ΔSa_immob so enhancing subsequent specific gp120:CD4 binding at 37 °C. This is consistent with the observation that HIV attachment factors are not essential but augment infection. Antiviral therapies should focus on increasing virion size, for example through binding of zinc oxide nanoparticles to herpes simplex virus, hence making ΔSa_immob more negative, and thus reducing binding affinity at 37 °C.
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Key Words
- AIV, avian influenza virus
- Antivirals
- BBF, brush border fragments from midgut
- BTV, bluetongue virus
- C.VT, number of host cells with bound virus at temperature T
- CD4, host cell receptor for HIV
- Cp, heat capacity at constant pressure
- Cr, host cell receptor
- Ctotal, number of host cells which can bind virus in a given volume of host fluid (midgut or blood)
- DENV, Dengue virus
- EA, activation energy
- EBOV, Zaire ebolavirus
- EM, electron microscopy
- Entropy
- Env, HIV gp120 trimer envelope protein which binds to a single CD4 molecule
- FcT, fraction of arthropod midgut cells with bound virus at temperature T
- GP, viral (glyco)protein on virus surface that binds to Cr
- HA, haemagglutinin
- HIV, human immunodeficiency virus
- HSV-2, herpes simplex virus type 2
- Heat capacity
- Ka_virus_T, association constant for binding of virus to host cells at temperature T
- Kd_receptor_T, dissociation constant for GP from Cr at temperature T
- Kd_virus, dissociation constant for virus from host cell
- M, molar (moles dm-3)
- R, ideal gas constant
- SA, sialic acid
- SIV, simian immunodeficiency virus
- Temperature
- Vfree, virus not bound to cells
- Virus size
- Vtotal, virus challenge dose in volume of host fluid
- WEEV, Western equine encephalitis virus
- WNV, West Nile virus
- ZnOT, zinc oxide tetrapod
- n, number of GP/Cr contacts made on virus binding to cell
- pcompleteT, probability given a virion has bound to the surface of a midgut cell that that midgut cell becomes infected and that its progeny viruses go on to infect the salivary gland so completing the arthropod infection process within the life time of the arthropod at temperature T
- ptransmissionT, probability of successful infection of the arthropod salivary glands after oral exposure at temperature T
- ΔCp, change in heat capacity
- ΔGa_virus_T, change in Gibbs free energy on association of virus and host cell at temperature T
- ΔHa_receptor_T, change in enthalpy for binding of virus GP to host Cr receptor at a temperature T
- ΔHa_virus_T, change in enthalpy for binding of virus to host cell at temperature T
- ΔSa_immob, change in entropy on immobilization of whole virus to cell surface
- ΔSa_non_specific, change in entropy on immobilization of virus to cell surface through non-specific binding
- ΔSa_receptor_T, change in entropy for binding of virus GP to host Cr receptor
- ΔSa_specific, change in entropy on immobilization of virus to cell surface through specific GP/Cr-driven binding
- ΔSa_virus_T, change in entropy for binding of virus to host cell at temperature T
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Gale
- Independent Scientist, 15 Weare Close, Portland, Dorset, DT5 1JP, United Kingdom
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Wen L, Chu H, Wong BHY, Wang D, Li C, Zhao X, Chiu MC, Yuan S, Fan Y, Chen H, Zhou J, Yuen KY. Large-scale sequence analysis reveals novel human-adaptive markers in PB2 segment of seasonal influenza A viruses. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:47. [PMID: 29593225 PMCID: PMC5874250 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0050-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 02/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
To elucidate the adaptive strategies of influenza A viruses (IAVs) to human, we proposed a computational approach to identify human-adaptive mutations in seasonal IAVs, which have not been analyzed comprehensively. We compared representative PB2 sequences of 1425 avian IAVs and 2176 human IAVs and identified a total of 42 human-adaptive markers, including 28 and 31 markers in PB2 proteins of seasonal viruses H1N1 and H3N2, respectively. Notably, this comprehensive list encompasses almost all the markers identified in prior computational studies and 21 novel markers including an experimentally verified mutation K526R, suggesting the predictive power of our method. The strength of our analysis derives from the enormous amount of recently available sequences as well as the recognition that human-adaptive mutations are not necessarily conserved across subtypes. We also utilized mutual information to profile the inter-residue coevolution in PB2 protein. A total of 35 and 46 coevolving site pairs are identified in H1N1 and H3N2, respectively. Interestingly, 13 out of the 28 (46.4%) identified markers in H1N1 and 16 out of the 31 (51.6%) in H3N2 are embraced in the coevolving pairs. Many of them are paired with well-characterized human-adaptive mutations, indicating potential epistatic effect of these coevolving residues in human adaptation. Additionally, we reconstructed the PB2 evolutionary history of seasonal IAVs and demonstrated the distinct adaptive pathway of PB2 segment after reassortment from H1 to H3 lineage. Our study may provide clues for further experimental validation of human-adaptive mutations and shed light on the human adaptation process of seasonal IAVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wen
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hin Chu
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Bosco Ho-Yin Wong
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Dong Wang
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Cun Li
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xiaoyu Zhao
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Man-Chun Chiu
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shuofeng Yuan
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yanhui Fan
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Honglin Chen
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jie Zhou
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China. .,State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China. .,Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Kwok-Yung Yuen
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Novel Reassortant H3N2 Avian Influenza Virus Isolated from Domestic Ducks in Eastern China in 2016. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2017; 5:5/48/e01237-17. [PMID: 29192070 PMCID: PMC5722056 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.01237-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
H3 subtype avian influenza virus (AIV) poses a great threat to public health, and so investigating its epidemiology is of great importance. A novel reassortant H3N2 AIV strain was isolated from a live poultry market in eastern China. The strain’s genes originated from H1N1, H3, and H7 AIVs. Thus, the genome information of the H3N2 isolate will help to investigate further the epidemiology of H3 subtype AIVs in China.
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Kasloff SB, Weingartl HM. Swine alveolar macrophage cell model allows optimal replication of influenza A viruses regardless of their origin. Virology 2016; 490:91-8. [PMID: 26855331 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The importance of pigs in interspecies transmission of influenza A viruses has been repeatedly demonstrated over the last century. Eleven influenza A viruses from avian, human and swine hosts were evaluated for replication phenotypes at three physiologically relevant temperatures (41°C, 37°C, 33°C) in an immortalized swine pulmonary alveolar macrophage cell line (IPAM 3D4/31) to determine whether this system would allow for their efficient replication. All isolates replicated well in IPAMs at 37°C while clear distinctions were observed at 41°C and 33°C, correlating to species of origin of the PB2, reflected in distinct amino acid residue profiles rather than in one particular PB2 residue. A strong TNF-α response was induced by some mammalian but not avian IAVs, while other selected cytokines remained below detection levels. Porcine IPAMs represent a natural host cell model for influenza virus replication where the only condition requiring modification for optimal IAV replication, regardless of virus origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha B Kasloff
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Hana M Weingartl
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
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Mostafa A, Kanrai P, Ziebuhr J, Pleschka S. The PB1 segment of an influenza A virus H1N1 2009pdm isolate enhances the replication efficiency of specific influenza vaccine strains in cell culture and embryonated eggs. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:620-631. [PMID: 26743314 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza vaccine strains (IVSs) contain the haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genome segments of relevant circulating strains in the genetic background of influenza A/PR/8/1934 virus (PR8). Previous work has shown that the nature of the PB1 segment may be a limiting factor for the efficient production of IVSs. Here, we showed that the PB1 segment (PB1Gi) from the 2009 pandemic influenza A virus (IAV) A/Giessen/06/2009 (Gi wt, H1N1pdm) may help to resolve (some of) these limitations. We produced a set of recombinant PR8-derived viruses that contained (i) the HA and NA segments from representative IAV strains (H3N2, H5N1, H7N9, H9N2); (ii) the PB1 segment from PR8 or Gi wt, respectively; and (iii) the remaining five genome segments from PR8. Viruses containing the PB1Gi segment, together with the heterologous HA/NA segments and five PR8 segments (5+2+1), replicated to higher titres compared with their 6+2 counterparts containing six PR8 segments and the equivalent heterologous HA/NA segments. Compared with PB1PR8-containing IVSs, viruses with the PB1Gi segment replicated to higher or similar titres in both cell culture and embryonated eggs, most profoundly IVSs of the H5N1 and H7N9 subtype, which are known to grow poorly in these systems. IVSs containing either the PB1Gi or the cognate PB1 segment of the respective specific HA/NA donor strain showed enhanced or similar virus replication levels. This study suggests that substitution of PB1PR8 with the PB1Gi segment may greatly improve the large-scale production of PR8-derived IVSs, especially of those known to replicate poorly in vitro.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Chick Embryo
- Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/genetics
- Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/metabolism
- Humans
- Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/enzymology
- Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/immunology
- Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/physiology
- Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype/physiology
- Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype/physiology
- Influenza A Virus, H7N9 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H7N9 Subtype/physiology
- Influenza A Virus, H9N2 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H9N2 Subtype/physiology
- Influenza Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Influenza Vaccines/genetics
- Influenza Vaccines/immunology
- Influenza, Human/epidemiology
- Influenza, Human/prevention & control
- Influenza, Human/virology
- Ovum/virology
- Viral Proteins/genetics
- Viral Proteins/metabolism
- Virus Replication
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Mostafa
- Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, 35392 Giessen, Germany
- Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre (NRC), Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | - Pumaree Kanrai
- Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - John Ziebuhr
- Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Stephan Pleschka
- Institute of Medical Virology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, 35392 Giessen, Germany
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7
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Plant EP, Ye Z. Chimeric neuraminidase and mutant PB1 gene constellation improves growth and yield of H5N1 vaccine candidate virus. J Gen Virol 2014; 96:752-755. [PMID: 25502649 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that a mutated PB1 gene improved the growth kinetics of a H3N2 influenza reassortant. Here, we showed that the same mutations improved the growth kinetics of a virus containing the A/Vietnam/1203/2004 (H5N1) haemagglutinin and neuraminidase (NA). Total protein yield and NA activity were increased when a chimeric NA was included. These increases indicated that the synergistic effect was due to the gene constellation containing both the altered PB1 gene and the chimeric NA gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewan P Plant
- Laboratory of Respiratory Viral Diseases, Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccine Research and Review, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA
| | - Zhiping Ye
- Laboratory of Respiratory Viral Diseases, Division of Viral Products, Office of Vaccine Research and Review, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA
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Recent Developments in Preclinical DNA Vaccination. Vaccines (Basel) 2014; 2:89-106. [PMID: 26344468 PMCID: PMC4494203 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines2010089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The advantages of genetic immunization of the new vaccine using plasmid DNAs are multifold. For example, it is easy to generate plasmid DNAs, increase their dose during the manufacturing process, and sterilize them. Furthermore, they can be stored for a long period of time upon stabilization, and their protein encoding sequences can be easily modified by employing various DNA-manipulation techniques. Although DNA vaccinations strongly increase Th1-mediated immune responses in animals, several problems persist. One is about their weak immunogenicity in humans. To overcome this problem, various genetic adjuvants, electroporation, and prime-boost methods have been developed preclinically, which are reviewed here.
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Wang S, Wu B, Xue J, Wang M, Chen R, Wang B. Nizatidine, a small molecular compound, enhances killed H5N1 vaccine cell-mediated responses and protects mice from lethal viral challenge. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2013; 10:461-8. [PMID: 24253609 DOI: 10.4161/hv.27165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nizatidine (NIZ), closely related to Cimetidine, is a histamine H2 receptor inverse agonist used primarily as an anti-acid drug. Recent studies showed that this class of compounds may also modulate immune responses. To evaluate adjuvant effects of NIZ on vaccine immune modulation, we formulated NIZ with a H5N1 killed viral antigen and tested in vitro and in vivo. NIZ activated DC maturation and stimulated Th1 and Th2 immune responses to H5N1 vaccine. As a result, it enhanced both antibody and T cell-mediated immune responses. We also observed that a single immunization into C57BL/6 mice blocked IL-10 upregulation and potentiated Th1/Th2 dual polarization. Importantly, the inoculation of H5N1 vaccine with NIZ significantly improved protection of animals from death after challenge and reduced virus loads in the lung tissues. Considering its water-soluble nature, compared with Cimetidine, Nizatidine may be a better choice to use as a vaccine adjuvant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Agro-Biotechnology; College of Biological Science; China Agricultural University; Beijing, PR China
| | - Bing Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Agro-Biotechnology; College of Biological Science; China Agricultural University; Beijing, PR China
| | - Jia Xue
- College of Veterinary Medicine; China Agricultural University; Beijing, PR China
| | - Ming Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine; China Agricultural University; Beijing, PR China
| | - Ruiai Chen
- Dahuanong Animal Health Inc.; Guangdong, PR China
| | - Bin Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Agro-Biotechnology; College of Biological Science; China Agricultural University; Beijing, PR China; Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of MOH and MOE; Fudan University Shanghai Medical College; Shanghai, PR China
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