Circumventing embryonic lethality with Lcmt1 deficiency: generation of hypomorphic Lcmt1 mice with reduced protein phosphatase 2A methyltransferase expression and defects in insulin signaling

Effects of carboxyl-terminal methylation on holoenzyme function of the PP2A subfamily

Phosphoprotein Phosphatases (PPPs) are enzymes highly conserved from yeast and human and catalyze the majority of the serine and threonine dephosphorylation in cells. To achieve substrate specificity and selectivity, PPPs form multimeric holoenzymes consisting of catalytic, structural/scaffolding, and regulatory subunits. For the Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A)-subfamily of PPPs, holoenzyme assembly is at least in part regulated by an unusual carboxyl-terminal methyl-esterification, commonly referred to as 'methylation'. Carboxyl-terminal methylation is catalyzed by Leucine carboxyl methyltransferase-1 (LCMT1) that utilizes S-adenosyl-methionine (SAM) as the methyl donor and removed by protein phosphatase methylesterase 1 (PME1). For PP2A, methylation dictates regulatory subunit selection and thereby downstream phosphorylation signaling. Intriguingly, there are four families of PP2A regulatory subunits, each exhibiting different levels of methylation sensitivity. Thus, changes in PP2A methylation stoichiometry alters the complement of PP2A holoenzymes in cells and creates distinct modes of kinase opposition. Importantly, selective inactivation of PP2A signaling through the deregulation of methylation is observed in several diseases, most prominently Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this review, we focus on how carboxyl-terminal methylation of the PP2A subfamily (PP2A, PP4, and PP6) regulates holoenzyme function and thereby phosphorylation signaling, with an emphasis on AD.

Reduced Expression of the PP2A Methylesterase, PME-1, or the PP2A Methyltransferase, LCMT-1, Alters Sensitivity to Beta-Amyloid-Induced Cognitive and Electrophysiological Impairments in Mice

Beta-amyloid (Aβ) is thought to play a critical role in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and application of soluble oligomeric forms of Aβ produces AD-like impairments in cognition and synaptic plasticity in experimental systems. We found previously that transgenic overexpression of the PP2A methylesterase, PME-1, or the PP2A methyltransferase, LCMT-1, altered the sensitivity of mice to Aβ-induced impairments, suggesting that PME-1 inhibition may be an effective approach for preventing or treating these impairments. To explore this possibility, we examined the behavioral and electrophysiological effects of acutely applied synthetic Aβ oligomers in male and female mice heterozygous for either a PME-1 KO or an LCMT-1 gene-trap mutation. We found that heterozygous PME-1 KO mice were resistant to Aβ-induced impairments in cognition and synaptic plasticity, whereas LCMT-1 gene-trap mice showed increased sensitivity to Aβ-induced impairments. The heterozygous PME-1 KO mice produced normal levels of endogenous Aβ and exhibited normal electrophysiological responses to picomolar concentrations of Aβ, suggesting that reduced PME-1 expression in these animals protects against Aβ-induced impairments without impacting normal physiological Aβ functions. Together, these data provide additional support for roles for PME-1 and LCMT-1 in regulating sensitivity to Aβ-induced impairments, and suggest that inhibition of PME-1 may constitute a viable therapeutic approach for selectively protecting against the pathologic actions of Aβ in AD.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Elevated levels of β-amyloid (Aβ) in the brain are thought to contribute to the cognitive impairments observed in Alzheimer's disease patients. Here we show that genetically reducing endogenous levels of the PP2A methylesterase, PME-1, prevents the cognitive and electrophysiological impairments caused by acute exposure to pathologic concentrations of Aβ without impairing normal physiological Aβ function or endogenous Aβ production. Conversely, reducing endogenous levels of the PP2A methyltransferase, LCMT-1, increases sensitivity to Aβ-induced impairments. These data offer additional insights into the molecular factors that control sensitivity to Aβ-induced impairments, and suggest that inhibiting PME-1 may constitute a viable therapeutic avenue for preventing Aβ-related impairments in Alzheimer's disease.

Global loss of leucine carboxyl methyltransferase-1 causes severe defects in fetal liver hematopoiesis

Leucine carboxyl methyltransferase-1 (LCMT-1) methylates the C-terminal leucine α-carboxyl group of the catalytic subunits of the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) subfamily of protein phosphatases, PP2Ac, PP4c, and PP6c. LCMT-1 differentially regulates the formation and function of a subset of the heterotrimeric complexes that PP2A and PP4 form with their regulatory subunits. Global LCMT-1 knockout causes embryonic lethality in mice, but LCMT-1 function in development is unknown. In this study, we analyzed the effects of global LCMT-1 loss on embryonic development. LCMT-1 knockout causes loss of PP2Ac methylation, indicating that LCMT-1 is the sole PP2Ac methyltransferase. PP2A heterotrimers containing the Bα and Bδ B-type subunits are dramatically reduced in whole embryos, and the steady-state levels of PP2Ac and the PP2A structural A subunit are also down ∼30%. Strikingly, global loss of LCMT-1 causes severe defects in fetal hematopoiesis and usually death by embryonic day 16.5. Fetal livers of homozygous lcmt-1 knockout embryos display hypocellularity, elevated apoptosis, and greatly reduced numbers of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell-enriched Kit+Lin-Sca1+ cells. The percent cycling cells and mitotic indices of WT and lcmt-1 knockout fetal liver cells are similar, suggesting that hypocellularity may be due to a combination of apoptosis and/or defects in specification, self-renewal, or survival of stem cells. Indicative of a possible intrinsic defect in stem cells, noncompetitive and competitive transplantation experiments reveal that lcmt-1 loss causes a severe multilineage hematopoietic repopulating defect. Therefore, this study reveals a novel role for LCMT-1 as a key player in fetal liver hematopoiesis.

H2 O2 induces PP2A demethylation to downregulate mTORC1 signaling in HEK293 cells

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a Ser/Thr protein kinase that functions as an ATP and amino acid sensor to govern cell growth and proliferation by mediating mitogen- and nutrient-dependent signal transduction. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), a ubiquitously expressed serine/threonine phosphatase, negatively regulates mTOR signaling. Methylation of PP2A is catalyzed by leucine carboxyl methyltransferase-1 (LCMT1) and reversed by protein phosphatase methylesterase 1 (PME-1), which regulates PP2A activity and substrate specificity. However, whether PP2A methylation is related to mTOR signaling is still unknown. In this study, we examined the effect of PP2A methylation on mTOR signaling in HEK293 cells under oxidative stress. Our results show that oxidative stress induces PP2A demethylation and inhibits the mTORC1 signaling pathway. Next, we examined two strategies to block PP2A demethylation under oxidative stress. One strategy was to prevent PP2A demethylation using a PME-1 inhibitor; the other strategy was to activate PP2A methylation via overexpression of LCMT1. The results show that both the PME-1 inhibitor and LCMT1 overexpression prevent the mTORC1 signaling suppression induced by oxidative stress. Additionally, LCMT1 overexpression rescued cell viability and the mitochondrial membrane potential decrease in response to oxidative stress. These results demonstrate that H₂ O₂ induces PP2A demethylation to downregulate mTORC1 signaling. These findings provide a novel mechanism for the regulation of PP2A demethylation and mTORC1 signaling under oxidative stress.

Therapeutic targeting of PP2A

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a major serine/threonine phosphatase that regulates many cellular processes. Given the central role of PP2A in regulating diverse biological functions and its dysregulation in many diseases, including cancer, PP2A directed therapeutics have become of great interest. The main approaches leveraged thus far can be categorized as follows: 1) inhibiting endogenous inhibitors of PP2A, 2) targeted disruption of post translational modifications on PP2A subunits, or 3) direct targeting of PP2A. Additional insight into the structural, molecular, and biological framework driving the efficacy of these therapeutic strategies will provide a foundation for the refinement and development of novel and clinically tractable PP2A targeted therapies.

Changes in Carboxy Methylation and Tyrosine Phosphorylation of Protein Phosphatase PP2A Are Associated with Epididymal Sperm Maturation and Motility

Mammalian sperm contain the serine/threonine phosphatases PP1γ2 and PP2A. The role of sperm PP1γ2 is relatively well studied. Here we confirm the presence of PP2A in sperm and show that it undergoes marked changes in methylation (leucine 309), tyrosine phosphorylation (tyrosine 307) and catalytic activity during epididymal sperm maturation. Spermatozoa isolated from proximal caput, distal caput and caudal regions of the epididymis contain equal immuno-reactive amounts of PP2A. Using demethyl sensitive antibodies we show that PP2A is methylated at its carboxy terminus in sperm from the distal caput and caudal regions but not in sperm from the proximal caput region of the epididymis. The methylation status of PP2A was confirmed by isolation of PP2A with microcystin agarose followed by alkali treatment, which causes hydrolysis of protein carboxy methyl esters. Tyrosine phosphorylation of sperm PP2A varied inversely with methylation. That is, PP2A was tyrosine phosphorylated when it was demethylated but not when methylated. PP2A demethylation and its reciprocal tyrosine phosphorylation were also affected by treatment of sperm with L-homocysteine and adenosine, which are known to elevate intracellular S-adenosylhomocysteine, a feedback inhibitor of methyltransferases. Catalytic activity of PP2A declined during epididymal sperm maturation. Inhibition of PP2A by okadaic acid or by incubation of caudal epididymal spermatozoa with L-homocysteine and adenosine resulted in increase of sperm motility parameters including percent motility, velocity, and lateral head amplitude. Demethylation or pharmacological inhibition of PP2A also leads to an increase in phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3). Our results show for the first time that changes in PP2A activity due to methylation and tyrosine phosphorylation occur in sperm and that these changes may play an important role in the regulation of sperm function.

Altered protein phosphatase 2A methylation and Tau phosphorylation in the young and aged brain of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) deficient mice

Common functional polymorphisms in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene, a key enzyme in folate and homocysteine metabolism, influence risk for a variety of complex disorders, including developmental, vascular, and neurological diseases. MTHFR deficiency is associated with elevation of homocysteine levels and alterations in the methylation cycle. Here, using young and aged Mthfr knockout mouse models, we show that mild MTHFR deficiency can lead to brain-region specific impairment of the methylation of Ser/Thr protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Relative to wild-type controls, decreased expression levels of PP2A and leucine carboxyl methyltransferase (LCMT1) were primarily observed in the hippocampus and cerebellum, and to a lesser extent in the cortex of young null Mthfr (-/-) and aged heterozygous Mthfr (+/-) mice. A marked down regulation of LCMT1 correlated with the loss of PP2A/Bα holoenzymes. Dietary folate deficiency significantly decreased LCMT1, methylated PP2A and PP2A/Bα levels in all brain regions examined from aged Mthfr (+/+) mice, and further exacerbated the regional effects of MTHFR deficiency in aged Mthfr (+/-) mice. In turn, the down regulation of PP2A/Bα was associated with enhanced phosphorylation of Tau, a neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Our findings identify hypomethylation of PP2A enzymes, which are major CNS phosphatases, as a novel mechanism by which MTHFR deficiency and Mthfr gene-diet interactions could lead to disruption of neuronal homeostasis, and increase the risk for a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders, including age-related diseases like sporadic AD.

Protein phosphatase 2A dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a large family of enzymes that account for the majority of brain Ser/Thr phosphatase activity. While PP2A enzymes collectively modulate most cellular processes, sophisticated regulatory mechanisms are ultimately responsible for ensuring isoform-specific substrate specificity. Of particular interest to the Alzheimer’s disease (AD) field, alterations in PP2A regulators and PP2A catalytic activity, subunit expression, methylation and/or phosphorylation, have been reported in AD-affected brain regions. “PP2A” dysfunction has been linked to tau hyperphosphorylation, amyloidogenesis and synaptic deficits that are pathological hallmarks of this neurodegenerative disorder. Deregulation of PP2A enzymes also affects the activity of many Ser/Thr protein kinases implicated in AD. This review will more specifically discuss the role of the PP2A/Bα holoenzyme and PP2A methylation in AD pathogenesis. The PP2A/Bα isoform binds to tau and is the primary tau phosphatase. Its deregulation correlates with increased tau phosphorylation in vivo and in AD. Disruption of PP2A/Bα-tau protein interactions likely contribute to tau deregulation in AD. Significantly, alterations in one-carbon metabolism that impair PP2A methylation are associated with increased risk for sporadic AD, and enhanced AD-like pathology in animal models. Experimental studies have linked deregulation of PP2A methylation with down-regulation of PP2A/Bα, enhanced phosphorylation of tau and amyloid precursor protein, tau mislocalization, microtubule destabilization and neuritic defects. While it remains unclear what are the primary events that underlie “PP2A” dysfunction in AD, deregulation of PP2A enzymes definitely affects key players in the pathogenic process. As such, there is growing interest in developing PP2A-centric therapies for AD, but this may be a daunting task without a better understanding of the regulation and function of specific PP2A enzymes.

PP2A inhibition is a common event in colorectal cancer and its restoration using FTY720 shows promising therapeutic potential

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a tumor suppressor that regulates many signaling pathways crucial for cell transformation. In fact, decreased activity of PP2A has been reported as a recurrent alteration in many types of cancer. Here, we show that PP2A is frequently inactivated in patients with colorectal cancer, indicating that PP2A represents a potential therapeutic target for this disease. We identified overexpression of the endogenous PP2A inhibitors SET and CIP2A, and downregulation of regulatory PP2A such as PPP2R2A and PPP2R5E, as contributing mechanisms to PP2A inhibition in colorectal cancer. Moreover, we observed that its restoration using FTY720 impairs proliferation and clonogenic potential of colorectal cancer cells, induces caspase-dependent apoptosis, and affects AKT and extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1/2 activation status. Interestingly, treatment with FTY720 showed an additive effect with 5-fluorouracil, SN-38, and oxaliplatin, drugs used in standard chemotherapy in patients with colorectal cancer. These results suggest that PP2A activity is commonly decreased in colorectal cancer cells, and that the use of PP2A activators, such as FTY720, might represent a potential novel therapeutic strategy in colorectal cancer.