Scaling up paediatric HIV care with an integrated, family-centred approach: an observational case study from Uganda

Mixed methods systematic review and metasummary about barriers and facilitators for the implementation of cotrimoxazole and isoniazid-Preventive therapies for people living with HIV

BACKGROUND

Cotrimoxazole and isoniazid preventive therapy (CPT, IPT) have been shown to be efficacious therapies for the prevention of opportunistic infections and tuberculosis (TB) among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Despite governments' efforts to translate World Health Organization recommendations into practice, implementation remains challenging. This review aimed to explore and compare CPT and IPT with respect to similarities and differences of barriers identified across high TB/HIV burden countries. A secondary objective was to identify facilitators for implementing both preventive therapies.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE, Web of Science and SCOPUS databases for peer-reviewed literature published before September 2020. We extracted and synthesized our findings using Maxqda software. We applied framework synthesis in conjunction with metasummary to compare both therapies with respect to similarities and differences of barriers identified across seven health system components (in line with the modified WHO's Framework for action). Protocol registration: PROSPERO (CRD42019137778).

FINDINGS

We identified four hundred and eighty-two papers, of which we included forty for review. Although most barrier themes were identical for both preventive therapies, we identified seven intervention-specific themes. Like for CPT, barriers identified for IPT were most frequently classified as 'service delivery-related barriers' and 'patient & community-related barriers'. 'Health provider-related barriers' played an important role for implementing IPT. Most facilitators identified referred to health system strengthening activities.

CONCLUSIONS

For researchers with limited working experience in high TB/HIV burden countries, this review can provide valuable insights about barriers that may arise at different levels of the health system. For policymakers in high TB/HIV burden countries, this review offers strategies for improving the delivery of IPT (or any newer therapy regimen) for the prevention of TB. Based on our findings, we suggest initial and continuous stakeholder involvement, focusing on the efficient use and reinforcement of existing resources for health.

A randomized controlled trial evaluating the effects of a family-centered HIV care model on viral suppression and retention in care of HIV-positive children in Eswatini

Introduction

A family-centered care model (FCCM) providing family-based HIV services, rather than separate adult/pediatric services, has been proposed to increase pediatric retention and treatment adherence.

Materials and methods

Eight health-care facilities in the Hhohho region of Eswatini were randomized to implement FCCM (n = 4) or continue standard-of-care (SOC) separate adult/pediatric clinics (n = 4). HIV-positive children and caregivers were enrolled; caregiver interview and child/caregiver chart abstraction were done at enrollment and every three months; pediatric viral load was evaluated at enrollment and every six months through 12 months. Because of study group differences in 12-month viral load data availability (89.4% FCCM and 72.0% SOC children had 12-month viral load), we used three separate analyses to evaluate the effects of FCCM on children’s viral suppression (<1,000 copies/mL) and undetectable virus (<400 copies/mL) at 12 months. In the first analysis, all children with missing viral outcome data were excluded from the analysis (modified intent to treat, mITT). The second analysis used inverse probability of missingness weighted logistic regression to estimate the effect of FCCM on 12-month viral outcomes compared to SOC (weighted mITT). For the third approach, missing virologic outcome data were imputed as virologic failure (imputed ITT). We also examined factors associated with viral suppression at 12 months using multivariable logistic regression.

Results

We enrolled 379 HIV-positive children and 363 caregivers. Among all children at enrollment, viral suppression and undetectability was 78.4% and 73.9%, respectively, improving to 90.2% and 87.3% at 12 months. In mITT and weighted mITT analyses, there was no significant difference in children’s 12-month viral suppression between FCCM and SOC groups (89.2% and 91.6%, respectively). Using imputed ITT, there was a modest increase in 12-month viral suppression in FCCM versus SOC children (79.7% and 69.8%, respectively, p = 0.051) and 12-month undetectability (78.7% and 65.7%, respectively, p = 0.015). Among the 255 children suppressed at enrollment, more FCCM versus SOC children (98.0% versus 95.3%) were suppressed at 12-months, but this was not statistically significant in mITT or weighted mITT analyses, with a marginally significant difference using imputed mITT analysis (p = 0.042). A higher proportion of children suppressed at enrollment had undetectable viral load at 12 months in FCCM versus SOC children (98.0% versus 92.5%), a statistically significant difference across analytical methods. Among the 61 children unsuppressed at enrollment, achieving suppression was higher among SOC versus FCCM children, but this difference was not statistically significant and included only 38 children; and there were no significant differences in detectable viral load at 12 months.

There were no significant differences between study groups in retention or ART adherence at 12 months for children or caregivers. Factors associated with lack of viral suppression/detectability at 12 months included lack of viral suppression at enrollment and having a younger caregiver (age <25 years).

Conclusions

FCCM in Eswatini was associated with a modest increase in viral suppression/undetectability at 12-months; 12-month retention and adherence did not differ by study group for children or caregivers. High levels of suppression and retention in both groups may have limited our ability to detect a difference.

Trial registration

NCT03397420; ClinicalTrials.gov.

Health systems software factors and their effect on the integration of sexual and reproductive health and HIV services

Despite a large and growing body of literature on sexual and reproductive health (SRH) and HIV integration, the drivers of integration of SRH and HIV services, from a health systems perspective, are not well understood. These drivers include complex so-called hardware (structural and resource) and software (values and norms, and human relations and interactions) factors. Two groups of software factors emerge as essential enablers of effective integration of SRH and HIV services that often interact with systems hardware: (1) leadership, management, and governance processes and (2) provider motivation, agency, and relationships. Evidence suggests the potential for software elements that are essential enablers to overcome some of the obstacles posed by the non-integration of health system hardware elements (eg, financing, guidelines, and commodity supplies). These enabling factors include flexible decision making, inclusive management, and support in motivating frontline staff who can work with agency as a team. Improved software, even within constrained hardware (especially in low-income and middle-income countries), can directly contribute to improved SRH and HIV service delivery.

'There are no more secrets': acceptability of a family-centered model of care for HIV positive children in Eswatini

BACKGROUND

HIV-positive children have lagged adults on retention in HIV care and viral suppression. To address this gap, Eswatini's Ministry of Health started a pilot family-centered HIV care model (FCCM) targeting HIV-positive children under 20 years old and their families.

METHODS

We conducted semi-structured in-depth interviews with 25 caregivers and 17 healthcare workers (HCWs) to assess acceptability of FCCM in four pilot FCCM health facilities in Hhohho region of Eswatini. Thematic analysis with inductive and deductive codes was used to identify salient themes.

RESULTS

Caregivers and HCWs reported FCCM benefits including strengthening the family bond, encouragement for family members to disclose their HIV status and supporting each other in taking antiretroviral drugs. Caregivers reported that they spent fewer days in clinic, experienced shorter waiting times, and received better counseling services in FCCM compared to the standard-of-care services. FCCM implementation challenges included difficulty for families to attend clinic visits together (e.g., due to scheduling conflicts with weekend Teen Support Club meetings and weekday FCCM appointments). Both HCWs and caregivers mentioned difficulty in sharing sensitive health information in the presence of other family members. HCWs also had challenges with supporting caregivers to disclose HIV status to children and managing the larger group during clinic visits.

CONCLUSIONS

FCCM for HIV-positive children was acceptable to both caregivers and HCWs, and they supported scaling-up FCCM implementation nationally. However, special considerations should be made to address the challenges experienced by participants in attending clinic visits together as a family in order to achieve the full benefits of FCCM for HIV positive children.

Beyond the facility: An evaluation of seven community-based pediatric HIV testing strategies and linkage to care outcomes in a high prevalence, resource-limited setting

Diverse challenges in expanding pediatric HIV testing and treatment coverage persist, making the investigation and adoption of innovative strategies urgent. Evidence is mounting for the effectiveness of community-based testing in bringing such lifesaving services to those in need, particularly in resource-limited settings. The Mobilizing HIV Identification and Treatment project piloted seven community-based testing strategies to assess their effectiveness in reaching HIV-positive children and linking them to care in two districts of Lesotho from October 2015 to March 2018. Children testing HIV-positive were enrolled into the project's mHealth system where they received e-vouchers for transportation assistance to the facility for treatment initiation and were followed-up for a minimum of three months. An average of 7,351 HIV tests were conducted per month across all strategies for all age groups, with 46% of these tests on children 0-14 years. An average of 141.65 individuals tested positive each month; 9% were children. Among the children tested 55% were over 5 years. The yield in children was low (0.38%), however facility-based yields were only slightly higher (0.72%). Seventy-five percent of children were first-time testers and 86% of those testing HIV-positive were first-time testers. Seventy-one percent of enrolled children linked to care, all but one initiated treatment, and 82% were retained in care at three months. As facility-based testing remains the core of HIV programs, this evaluation demonstrates the effectiveness of community-based strategies in finding previously untested children and those over 5 years who have limited interactions with the conventional health system. Utilizing active follow-up mechanisms, linkage rates were high suggesting accessing treatment in a facility after community testing is not a barrier. Overall, these community-based testing strategies contributed markedly to the HIV testing landscape in which they were implemented, demonstrating their potential to help close the gap of unidentified HIV-positive children and achieve universal testing coverage.

[Access to the management of HIV infected children: Overview of the healthcare supply in Cameroon in 2014]

BACKGROUND

In Cameroon in 2012, the proportion (15%) of children eligible for antiretroviral treatment (ART) was one of the lowest among the 21 Global Fund priority countries. The objective of this study was to carry out a situational analysis of the existing care offer for pediatric HIV in Cameroon.

METHODS

A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted over a 4-month period (April to August 2014) in 12 healthcare facilities in 7 regions of Cameroon selected by systematic sampling. The data were collected in a self-administered questionnaire filled out by the caregiving and administrative personnel included in the study.

RESULTS

All in all, 142 persons in charge of pediatric HIV treatment were included in the study, of whom 115 were working at the operational level: 59 (51.2%) health personnel, 44 (38.3%) community agents and 12 (10.4%) department heads; the other 27 exercised responsibilities at the regional (19) and the local (8) levels. An overwhelming majority of the caregivers involved in pediatric VIH treatment were nurses, a factor necessitating the delegation of medical tasks institutionalized in Cameroon. Few standardized nationwide documents take into account these treatment modalities. Inadequate dissemination of the documents at all levels of the healthcare pyramid may justify the non-compliance with the care protocols that has been observed in the training programs dedicated to the subject.

CONCLUSION

The updating and large-scale dissemination of standardized nationwide documents taking into account the specificities of HIV-infected children are required to improve implementation at the operational level of the Cameroonian healthcare system of the existing guidelines for pediatric HIV treatment.

Increasing pediatric HIV testing positivity rates through focused testing in high-yield points of service in health facilities-Nigeria, 2016-2017

Background

In 2017, UNAIDS estimated that 140,000 children aged 0–14 years are living with HIV in Nigeria, but only 35% have been diagnosed and are receiving antiretroviral therapy. Children are tested primarily in outpatient clinics, which show low HIV-positive rates. To demonstrate efficient facility-based HIV testing among children aged 0–14 years, we evaluated pediatric HIV-positivity rates in points of service in select health facilities in Nigeria.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective analysis of HIV testing and case identification among children aged 0–14 years at all points of service at nine purposively sampled hospitals (November 2016–March 2017). Points of service included family index testing, pediatric outpatient department (POPD), tuberculosis (TB) clinics, immunization clinics, and pediatric inpatient ward. Eligibility for testing at POPD was done using a screening tool while all children with unknown status were eligible for HIV test at other points of service. The main outcome was HIV positivity rates stratified by the testing point of service and by age group. Predictors of an HIV-positive result were assessed using logistic regression. All analyses were done using Stata 15 statistical software.

Results

Of 2,180 children seen at all facility points of service with unknown HIV status, 1,822 (83.6%) were tested for HIV, of whom 43 (2.4%) tested HIV positive. The numbers of children tested by age group were <1 years = 230 (12.6%); 1–4 years = 752 (41.3%); 5–9 years = 520 (28.5%); and 10–14 years = 320 (17.6%). The number of children tested by point of service were POPD = 906 (49.7%); family index testing = 693 (38.0%); pediatric inpatient ward = 192 (10.5%); immunization clinic = 16 (0.9%); and TB clinic = 15 (0.8%). HIV positivity rates by point of service were TB clinic = 6.7% (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.9–35.2%); pediatric inpatient ward = 4.7% (95%CI: 2.5–8.8%); family index testing = 3.5% (95%CI: 2.3–5.1%); POPD = 1.0% (95%CI: 0.5–1.9%); and immunization clinic = 0%. The percentage contribution to total HIV positive children found by point of services was: family index testing = 55.8% (95%CI: 40.9–69.8%); POPD = 20.9% (95%CI: 11.3–35.6%); inpatient ward = 20.9 (95%CI: 11.3–35.6%) and TB Clinic = 2.3% (95%CI: 0.3–14.8%). Compared with the POPD, the adjusted odds ratio (95% CI) for finding an HIV positive child by point of service were TB clinic = 7.2 (95% CI: 0.9–60.9); pediatric inpatient ward = 4.9 (95% CI: 1.9–12.8); and family index testing = 3.7 (95% CI: 1.5–8.8). HIV-positivity rates did not significantly differ by age group.

Conclusion

In Nigeria, to improve facility-based HIV positivity rates among children aged 0–14 years, an increased focus on HIV testing among children seeking care in pediatric inpatient wards, through family index testing, and perhaps TB clinics is appropriate.

Assessment of routine screening of pediatric contacts of adults with tuberculosis disease in Tanzania

Setting

Ten selected healthcare facilities in Tanzania, March-April 2016.

Objective

To assess the implementation of screening among pediatric contacts of adults with tuberculosis (TB) disease.

Design

Using a mixed-methods approach, we conducted a questionnaire study among sputum smear-positive adult TB patients and abstracted data from their patient cards to assess the implementation of a child contact management (CCM) intervention. We also conducted in-depth interviews with healthcare workers (HCWs) to solicit their views on clinical practices and challenges in CCM.

Results

A total of 141 adult smear-positive TB patients reported 396 children living in households; detailed information on 346 (87.4%) was available. Only 37 (10.7%) children were clinically assessed for TB, 5 (13.5%) were diagnosed with TB, and 22 started on isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) (59.0%). Of the 320 children whose caregivers responded to whether their children had undergone human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing, 55 (17.2%) had been tested and one (1.8%) was HIV-positive. Forty-one HCWs described passive CCM without use of contact or IPT registers.

Conclusion

We identified gaps in the implementation of TB screening, IPT provision, and HIV testing in pediatric contacts of adults with sputum smear-positive TB. Systematic efforts, including increasing HCW training and educating the community, may improve implementation.

Caregiver perspectives on TB case-finding and HIV clinical services for children diagnosed with TB in Tanzania

Caregivers of children with tuberculosis (TB) and HIV play a critical role in seeking healthcare for their children. To assess the perspectives of caregivers of pediatric TB patients, we conducted 76 in-depth interviews at 10 TB clinics in 5 districts of Tanzania in March 2016. We assessed how the child received their TB diagnosis, the decision-making process around testing the child for HIV, and the process of linking the child to HIV treatment in the event of an HIV diagnosis. Caregivers suspected TB due to cases in their family, or the child being ill and not improving. Most caregivers noted delays before confirmation of a TB diagnosis and having to visit multiple facilities before a diagnosis. Once diagnosed, some caregivers reported challenges administering TB medications due to lack of pediatric formulations. Reasons for accepting HIV testing included recurrent illness and HIV symptoms, history of HIV in the family, and recommendation of the clinical provider. Caregivers described a relatively seamless process for linking their child to HIV treatment, highlighting the success of TB/HIV integration efforts. The multiple clinic visits required prior to TB diagnosis suggests the need for additional training and sensitization of healthcare workers and better TB diagnostic tools.

A study using knowledge, attitude and practices on the prevention of HIV-1 vertical transmission with outcomes in early infant HIV-1 diagnosis in Eastern Uganda

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to assess trends over time using knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) among mothers living with HIV and rates of early infant diagnosis (EID) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in a hospital in Eastern Uganda, which is included in the National HIV Prevention Strategy (NHPS) in Uganda.

METHODS

A thematic qualitative assessment was conducted using focus group discussions (FGDs) with pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers and women attending the antiretroviral therapy (ART) clinic, all living with HIV. In addition, we have performed key informant interviews (KIIs) in October 2011 (baseline) and November 2016 (follow-up) at Mbale Regional Referral Hospital. Data were captured through customised source documents, written narratives and voice recordings. Social scientists decoded, analysed and interpreted the qualitative data with quality control. Retrospective data were obtained from EID registers for 2010 before and 2015 at the end of the NHPS, respectively. Supplementary quantitative data from the same hospital regarding trends of HIV-1 vertical transmission rates were collected from EID registers at baseline and at follow-up. Comparisons were made between HIV-1 transmission rates and KAP levels at baseline and at follow-up.

RESULTS

Three paired sets of FGD sessions, consisting of 8-10 participants for each of the groups of pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers and women attending ART clinic, all living with HIV, were conducted at baseline and at follow-up. Age ranged from 17 to 40 years. Two sets of paired KII interviews corresponding to the periods before and after the NHPS were also held. All study FGDs and KIIs showed improvement in KAP on HIV-1 vertical transmission and lower EID rates when comparing baseline to the follow-up period [9/69 (13.0%) and 14/336 (4.2%)], respectively (P = 0.004).

CONCLUSION

Improvement was noted in KAP on HIV-1 vertical transmission in pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers and women attending ART clinic, all HIV positive, in a regional referral hospital in Eastern Uganda over a 5-year period and was associated with a reduction in vertical transmission rates. Our data suggest that KAP is an effective type of intervention with regard to the prevention of HIV-1 vertical transmission in this population in resource-limited settings.

Active case finding: comparison of the acceptability, feasibility and effectiveness of targeted versus blanket provider-initiated-testing and counseling of HIV among children and adolescents in Cameroon

Background

Children and adolescents still lag behind adults in accessing antiretroviral therapy (ART), which is largely due to their limited access to HIV testing services. This study compares the acceptability, feasibility and effectiveness of targeted versus blanket provider-initiated testing and counseling (PITC) among children and adolescents in Cameroon.

Methods

During a 6-month period in three hospitals in Cameroon, we invited HIV-positive parents to have their biological children (6 weeks-19 years) tested for HIV (targeted PITC). During that same period and in the same hospitals, we also systematically offered HIV testing to all children evaluated at the outpatient department (blanket PITC). Children of consenting parents were tested for HIV, and positive cases were enrolled on ART. We compared the acceptability, feasibility and effectiveness of targeted and blanket PITC using Chi-square test at 5% significant level.

Results

We enrolled 1240 and 2459 eligible parents in the targeted PITC (tPITC) and blanket PITC (bPITC) group, and 99.7% and 98.8% of these parents accepted the offer to have their children tested for HIV, respectively. Out of the 1990 and 2729 children enrolled in the tPITC and bPITC group, 56.7% and 90.3% were tested for HIV (p < 0.0001), respectively. The HIV positivity rate was 3.5% (CI:2.4–4.5) and 1.6% (CI:1.1–2.1) in the tPITC and bPITC (p = 0.0008), respectively. This finding suggests that the case detection was two times higher in tPITC compared to bPITC, or alternatively, 29 and 63 children have to be tested to identify one HIV case with the implementation of tPITC and bPITC, respectively. The majority (84.8%) of HIV-positive children in the tPITC group were diagnosed earlier at WHO stage 1, and cases were mostly diagnosed at WHO stage 3 (39.1%) (p < 0.0001) in the bPITC group. Among the children who tested HIV-positive, 85.0% and 52.5% from the tPITC and bPITC group respectively, were enrolled on ART (p = 0.0018).

Conclusions

The tPITC and bPITC strategies demonstrated notable high HIV testing acceptance. tPITC was superior to bPITC in terms of case detection, case detection earliness and linkage to care. These findings indicate that tPITC is effective in case detection and linkage of children and adolescents to ART.

Trial registration

Trial registration Number: NCT03024762. Name of Registry: ClinicalTrial.gov. Date registration: January 19, 2017 (‘retrospectively registered’). Date of enrolment first patient: 15/07/2015.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12887-018-1276-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Feasibility and utility of active case finding of HIV-infected children and adolescents by provider-initiated testing and counselling: evidence from the Laquintinie hospital in Douala, Cameroon

BACKGROUND

Universal HIV testing and treatment of infected children remain challenging in resource-limited settings (RLS), leading to undiagnosed children/adolescents and limited access to pediatric antiretroviral therapy (ART). Our objective was to evaluate the feasibility of active cases finding of HIV-infected children/adolescents by provider-initiated testing and counseling in a health facility.

METHODS

A cross-sectional prospective study was conducted from January through April 2016 at 6 entry-points (inpatient, outpatient, neonatology, immunization/family planning, tuberculosis, day-care units) at the Laquintinie Hospital of Douala (LHD), Cameroon. At each entry-point, following counseling with consenting parents, children/adolescents (0-19 years old) with unknown HIV status were tested using the Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT) (Determine®) and confirmed with a second RDT (Oraquick®) according to national guidelines. For children less than 18 months, PCR was performed to confirm every positive RDT. Community health workers linked infected participants by accompanying them from the entry-point to the treatment centre for an immediate ART initiation following the « test and treat » strategy. Statistical analysis was performed, with p < 0.05 considered significant.

RESULTS

Out of 3439 children seen at entry-points, 2107 had an unknown HIV status (61.3%) and HIV testing acceptance rate was 99.9% (2104). Their mean age was 2.1 (Sd = 2.96) years, with a sex ratio boy/girl of 6/5. HIV prevalence was 2.1% (44), without a significant difference between boys and girls (p = 0.081). High rates of HIV-infection were found among siblings/descendants (22.2%), TB treatment unit attendees (11.4%) and hospitalized children/adolescents (5.6%); p < 0.001. Up to 95.4% (42/44) of those infected children/adolescents were initiated on ART. Overall, 487 (23.2%) deaths were registered (122 per month) and among them, 7 (15.9%) were HIV-positive; mainly due to tuberculosis and malnutrition.

CONCLUSION

The consistent rate of unknown HIV status among children/adolescents attending health facilities, the high acceptability rates of HIV testing and linkage to ART, underscore the feasibility and utility of an active case finding model, using multiple entry-points at the health facility, in achieving the 90-90-90 targets for paediatric HIV/AIDS in RLS.

Achieving Viral Suppression in 90% of People Living With Human Immunodeficiency Virus on Antiretroviral Therapy in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities

Although significant progress has been made, the latest data from low- and middle-income countries show substantial gaps in reaching the third "90%" (viral suppression) of the UNAIDS 90-90-90 goals, especially among vulnerable and key populations. This article discusses critical gaps and promising, evidence-based solutions. There is no simple and/or single approach to achieve the last 90%. This will require multifaceted, scalable strategies that engage people living with human immunodeficiency virus, motivate long-term treatment adherence, and are community-entrenched and ‑supported, cost-effective, and tailored to a wide range of global communities.

Impact of a Family Clinic Day intervention on paediatric and adolescent appointment adherence and retention in antiretroviral therapy: A cluster randomized controlled trial in Uganda

Background

In 2013, Uganda adopted a test-and-treat policy for HIV patients 15 years or younger. Low retention rates among paediatric and adolescent antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiates could severely limit the impact of this new policy. This evaluation tested the impact of a differentiated care model called Family Clinic Day (FCD), a family-centered appointment scheduling and health education intervention on patient retention and adherence to monthly appointment scheduling.

Methods

We conducted a cluster randomized controlled trial, from October 2014 to March 2015. Forty-six facilities were stratified by implementing partner and facility type and randomly assigned to the control or intervention arm. Primary outcomes included the proportion of patients retained in care at 6 months and the proportion adherent to their appointment schedule at last study period scheduled visit. Data collection occurred retrospectively in May 2015. Six patient focus group discussions and 17 health workers interviews were conducted to understand perspectives on FCD successes and challenges.

Results

A total of 4,715 paediatric and adolescent patient records were collected, of which 2,679 (n = 1,319 from 23 control facilities and 1,360 from 23 intervention facilities) were eligible for inclusion. The FCD did not improve retention (aOR 1.11; 90% CI 0.63–1.97, p = 0.75), but was associated with improved adherence to last appointment schedule (aOR 1.64; 90% CI 1.27–2.11, p<0.001). Qualitative findings suggested that FCD patients benefited from health education and increased psychosocial support.

Conclusion

FCD scale-up in Uganda may be an effective differentiated care model to ensure patient adherence to ART clinic appointment schedules, a key aspect necessary for viral load suppression. Patient health outcomes may also benefit following an increase in knowledge based on health education, and peer support. Broad challenges facing ART clinics, such as under-staffing and poor filing systems, should be addressed in order to improve patient care.

Pediatric Treatment Scale-Up: The Unfinished Agenda of the Global Plan

Five million children have died of AIDS-related causes since the beginning of the epidemic. In 2011, the Global Plan Towards the Elimination of New HIV Infections Among Children by 2015 and Keeping Their Mothers Alive (Global Plan) created the political environment to catalyze both the resources and commitment to end pediatric AIDS. Implementation and scale-up have encountered substantial hurdles, however, which have resulted in slow progress. Reasons include a lack of emphasis on testing outside of prevention of mother-to-child transmission services, an overall lack of integration and coordination with other services, a lack of training among providers, low confidence in caring for children living with HIV, and a lack of appropriate formulations for pediatric antiretrovirals. During the Global Plan period, we have learned that simplification is essential to successful decentralization, integration, and task shifting of services; that innovations require careful planning; and that the family is an important unit for delivering HIV care and treatment services. The post-Global Plan phase presents a number of noteworthy challenges that all stakeholders, national programs, and communities must tackle to guarantee universal treatment for children living with HIV. Accelerated action is essential in ensuring that HIV diagnosis and linkage to treatment happen as quickly and effectively as possible. As fewer infants are infected because of effective prevention of mother-to-child transmission interventions and the population of children living with HIV will age into adolescence adapting service delivery models to the epidemic context, and engaging the community will be critical to finding new efficiencies and allowing us to realize a true HIV-free generation-and to end AIDS by 2030.

Integration of HIV infant testing into immunization programmes: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Integration of HIV infant testing into immunization sessions is one of the strategies designed to increase coverage of early infant diagnosis.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the evidence on the outcomes of such integration.

METHODS

A systematic review of peer-reviewed and grey literature was undertaken from electronic sources such as MEDLINE, Google Scholar, websites of international agencies, past conferences and ministries of health reports published between year 2002 and 2013. Randomized controlled trials, observational and qualitative studies were searched and those meeting selection criteria were selected and relevant information extracted using structured tool. Statistical pooling was not possible owing to the heterogeneity of the study designs and outcome measures.

RESULTS

Of the nine articles which met the selection criteria, none used a randomized controlled design. Of these, five articles measured mother's acceptability of their infants being tested for HIV during its first pentavalent or DPT vaccination visit, and 89·5-100% accepted. Four articles reported the proportion of mothers who returned for HIV test results, ranging from 56·8% to 86·0%. Increased uptake of HIV testing following integration was confirmed by two articles. Only one study in Tanzania determined the uptake of vaccinations following integration, with urban facilities showing stable or slight increase of monthly vaccine uptake while decreases were observed across the rural sites. In two articles, stigma was perceived by service-providers and mothers as the potential risk following integration, particularly in rural settings.

DISCUSSION

Despite the limited number of articles, the findings in this systematic review suggest that HIV testing during immunization clinic visits is acceptable and feasible as a possible model for service delivery. However, the impact on vaccination uptake needs further study.

Scoping review: strategies of providing care for children with chronic health conditions in low- and middle-income countries

OBJECTIVES

To identify and review strategies of providing care for children living with chronic health conditions in low- and middle-income countries.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE and Cochrane EPOC databases for papers evaluating strategies of providing care for children with chronic health conditions in low- or middle-income countries. Data were systematically extracted using a standardised data charting form, and analysed according to Arksey and O'Malley's 'descriptive analytical method' for scoping reviews.

RESULTS

Our search identified 71 papers addressing eight chronic conditions; two chronic communicable diseases (HIV and TB) accounted for the majority of papers (n = 37, 52%). Nine (13%) papers reported the use of a package of care provision strategies (mostly related to HIV and/or TB in sub-Saharan Africa). Most papers addressed a narrow aspect of clinical care provision, such as patient education (n = 23) or task-shifting (n = 15). Few papers addressed the strategies for providing care at the community (n = 10, 15%) or policy (n = 6, 9%) level. Low-income countries were under-represented (n = 24, 34%), almost exclusively involving HIV interventions in sub-Saharan Africa (n = 21). Strategies and summary findings are described and components of future models of care proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

Strategies that have been effective in reducing child mortality globally are unlikely to adequately address the needs of children with chronic health conditions in low- and middle-income settings. Current evidence mostly relates to disease-specific, narrow strategies, and more research is required to develop and evaluate the integrated models of care, which may be effective in improving the outcomes for these children.

From patient to person: the need for an 'HIV trajectories' perspective in the delivery of prevention of mother-to-child-transmission services

Accelerated efforts to end vertical HIV transmission have resulted in a 52% decrease in new infections among children since 2001. However, current approaches to prevent mother-to-child-transmission (PMTCT) assume a linearity and universality. These insufficiently guide clinicians and programmes toward interventions that comprehensively address the varying and changing needs of clients. This results in high levels of loss-to-follow-up at each step of the PMTCT cascade. Current PMTCT approaches must be adapted to respond to the different and complex realities of women, children and families affected by HIV. Drawing on the concept of an 'HIV trajectories,' we screened peer-reviewed literature for promising PMTCT approaches and selected 13 articles for qualitative review when the described intervention involved more than a biomedical approach to PMTCT and mother-child HIV treatment and care. Our qualitative analysis revealed that interventions which integrated elements of the 'HIV trajectories' perspective and built on people living with HIV support/network, community health worker, primary healthcare and early childhood development platforms were successful because they recognized that HIV is an illness, experienced, moderated and managed by numerous factors beyond biomedical interventions alone.On the basis of this review, we call for the adoption of an 'HIV trajectories' perspective that can help assess the comprehensiveness of care provided to women, children and families affected by HIV and can inform the planning and delivery of HIV and related services so that they more adequately respond to the varying needs of clients on different 'HIV trajectories'.

Task shifting for the delivery of pediatric antiretroviral treatment: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Pediatric antiretroviral treatment coverage in resource-limited settings continues to lag behind adults. Task shifting is an effective approach broadly used for adults, which some countries have also adopted for children, but implementation is limited by lack of confidence and skills among nonspecialist staff.

METHODS

A systematic review was conducted by combining key terms for task shifting, antiretroviral therapy (ART), and children. Five databases and two conferences were searched from inception till August 01, 2013.

RESULTS

Eight observational studies provided outcome data for 11,828 children who received ART from nonphysician providers across 10 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The cumulative pooled proportion of deaths was 3.2% [95% confidence interval (CI): 2.0 to 4.5] at 6 months, 4.6% (95% CI: 2.1 to 7.1) at 12 months, 6.2% (95% CI: 3.7 to 8.8) at 24 months, and 5.9% (95% CI: 3.5 to 8.3) at 36 months. Mortality and loss to follow-up in task-shifting programs were comparable to those reported by programs providing doctor- or specialist-led care.

CONCLUSIONS

Our review suggests that task shifting of ART care can result in outcomes comparable to routine physician care, and this approach should be considered as part of a strategy to scale-up pediatric treatment. Specialist care will remain important for management of sick patients and complicated cases. Further qualitative research is needed to inform optimal implementation of task shifting for pediatric patients.

Factors Determining Survival and Retention among HIV-Infected Children and Adolescents in a Community Home-Based Care and a Facility-Based Family-Centred Approach in Kampala, Uganda: A Cohort Study

We describe factors determining retention and survival among HIV-infected children and adolescents engaged in two health care delivery models in Kampala, Uganda: one is a community home-based care (CHBC) and the other is a facility-based family-centred approach (FBFCA). This retrospective cohort study reviewed records from children aged from 0 to 18 years engaged in the two models from 2003 to 2010 focussing on retention/loss to follow-up, mortality, use of antiretroviral therapy (ART), and clinical characteristics. Kaplan Meier survival curves with log rank tests were used to describe and compare retention and survival. Overall, 1,623 children were included, 90.0% (1460/1623) from the CHBC. Children completed an average of 4.2 years of follow-up (maximum 7.7 years). Median age was 53 (IQR: 11-109) months at enrolment. In the CHBC, retention differed significantly between patients on ART and those not (log-rank test, adjusted, P < 0.001). Comparing ART patients in both models, there was no significant difference in long-term survival (log-rank test, P = 0.308, adjusted, P = 0.489), while retention was higher in the CHBC: 94.8% versus 84.7% in the FBFCA (log-rank test, P < 0.001, adjusted P = 0.006). Irrespective of model of care, children receiving ART had better retention in care and survival.

Beyond prevention of mother-to-child transmission: keeping HIV-exposed and HIV-positive children healthy and alive

In 2011, Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS announced a plan to eliminate new HIV infections among children by 2015. This increased focus on the elimination of maternal to child transmission (MTCT) is most welcome but is insufficient, as access to prevention of MTCT (PMTCT) programming is neither uniform nor universal. A new and more expansive agenda must be articulated to ensure that those infants and children who will never feel the impact of the current elimination agenda are reached and linked to appropriate care and treatment. This agenda must addresses challenges around both reducing vertical transmission through PMTCT and ensuring access to appropriate HIV testing, care, and treatment for all affected children who were never able to access PMTCT programming. Option B+, or universal test and treat for HIV-infected pregnant women is an excellent start, but it may be time to rethink our current approaches to delivering PMTCT services. New strategies will reduce vertical transmission to less than 1% for those mother-infant pairs who can access them allowing for the contemplation of not just PMTCT, but actual elimination of MTCT. But expanded thinking is needed to ensure elimination of pediatric HIV.