Inhibition of proliferation and induction of autophagy by atorvastatin in PC3 prostate cancer cells correlate with downregulation of Bcl2 and upregulation of miR-182 and p21

Targeting the autophagy-miRNA axis in prostate cancer: toward novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies

Since prostate cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death, a better understanding of the molecular pathways guiding its development is imperative. A key factor in prostate cancer is autophagy, a cellular mechanism that affects both cell survival and death. Autophagy is essential in maintaining cellular homeostasis. Autophagy is a physiological mechanism wherein redundant or malfunctioning cellular constituents are broken down and recycled. It is essential for preserving cellular homeostasis and is implicated in several physiological and pathological conditions, including cancer. Autophagy has been linked to metastasis, tumor development, and treatment resistance in prostate cancer. The deregulation of miRNAs related to autophagy appears to be a crucial element in the etiology of prostate cancer. These miRNAs influence the destiny of cancer cells by finely regulating autophagic mechanisms. Numerous investigations have emphasized the dual function of specific miRNAs in prostate cancer, which alter autophagy-related pathways to function as either tumor suppressors or oncogenes. Notably, miRNAs have been linked to the control of autophagy and the proliferation, apoptosis, and migration of prostate cancer cells. To create customized therapy approaches, it is imperative to comprehend the dynamic interplay between autophagy and miRNAs in prostate cancer. The identification of key miRNAs provides potential diagnostic and prognostic markers. Unraveling the complex network of lncRNAs, like PCA3, also expands the repertoire of molecular targets for therapeutic interventions. This review explores the intricate interplay between autophagy and miRNAs in prostate cancer, focusing on their regulatory roles in cellular processes ranging from survival to programmed cell death.

A comprehensive landscape analysis of autophagy in cancer development and drug resistance

Background

Autophagy plays important roles in cancer progression and therapeutic resistance, and the autophagy underlying the tumor pathogenesis and further mechanisms of chemoresistance emergence remains unknown.

Methods

In this study, via the single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) method, an autophagy 45-gene list was identified to evaluate samples' autophagy activity, verified through six GEO datasets with a confirmed autophagy phenotype. It was further utilized to distinguish tumors into autophagy score-high and score-low subtypes, and analyze their transcriptome landscapes, including survival analysis, correlation analysis of autophagy- and resistance-related genes, biological functional enrichment, and immune- and hypoxia-related and genomic heterogeneity comparison, in TCGA pan-cancer datasets. Furthermore, we performed an analysis of autophagy status in breast cancer chemoresistance combined with multiple GEO datasets and in vitro experiments to validate the mechanisms of potential anticancer drugs for reversing chemoresistance, including CCK-8 cell viability assays, RT-qPCR, and immunofluorescence.

Results

The 45-gene list was used to identify autophagy score-high and score-low subtypes and further analyze their multi-dimensional features. We demonstrated that cancer autophagy status correlated with significantly different prognoses, molecular alterations, biological process activations, immunocyte infiltrations, hypoxia statuses, and specific mutational processes. The autophagy score-low subtype displayed a more favorable prognosis compared with the score-high subtype, associated with their immune-activated features, manifested as high immunocyte infiltration, including high CD8+T, Tfh, Treg, NK cells, and tumor-associated macrophages M1/M2. The autophagy score-low subtype also showed a high hypoxia score, and hypoxic tumors showed a significantly differential prognosis in different autophagy statuses. Therefore, "double-edged" cell fates triggered by autophagy might be closely correlated with the immune microenvironment and hypoxia induction. Results demonstrated that dysregulated autophagy was involved in many cancers and their therapeutic resistance and that the autophagy was induced by the resistance-reversing drug response, in five breast cancer GEO datasets and validated by in vitro experiments. In vitro, dihydroartemisinin and artesunate could reverse breast cancer doxorubicin resistance, through inducing autophagy via upregulating LC3B and ATG7.

Conclusion

Our study provided a comprehensive landscape of the autophagy-related molecular and tumor microenvironment patterns for cancer progression and resistance, and highlighted the promising potential of drug-induced autophagy in the activation of drug sensitivity and reversal of resistance.

Lipid-lowering drugs and cancer: an updated perspective

Statins and non-statin medications used for the management of dyslipidemia have been shown to possess antitumor properties. Since the use of these drugs has steadily increased over the past decades, more knowledge is required about their relationship with cancer. Lipid-lowering agents are heterogeneous compounds; therefore, it remains to be revealed whether anticancer potential is a class effect or related to them all. Here, we reviewed the literature on the influence of lipid-lowering medications on various types of cancer during development or metastasis. We also elaborated on the underlying mechanisms associated with the anticancer effects of antihyperlipidemic agents by linking the reported in vivo and in vitro studies.

Rhabdomyosarcoma: Current Therapy, Challenges, and Future Approaches to Treatment Strategies

Rhabdomyosarcoma is a rare cancer arising in skeletal muscle that typically impacts children and young adults. It is a worldwide challenge in child health as treatment outcomes for metastatic and recurrent disease still pose a major concern for both basic and clinical scientists. The treatment strategies for rhabdomyosarcoma include multi-agent chemotherapies after surgical resection with or without ionization radiotherapy. In this comprehensive review, we first provide a detailed clinical understanding of rhabdomyosarcoma including its classification and subtypes, diagnosis, and treatment strategies. Later, we focus on chemotherapy strategies for this childhood sarcoma and discuss the impact of three mechanisms that are involved in the chemotherapy response including apoptosis, macro-autophagy, and the unfolded protein response. Finally, we discuss in vivo mouse and zebrafish models and in vitro three-dimensional bioengineering models of rhabdomyosarcoma to screen future therapeutic approaches and promote muscle regeneration.

The potential application of encapsulated exosomes: A new approach to increase exosomes therapeutic efficacy

Cell therapy is one of the methods that have shown promising results in treating diseases in recent decades. However, the use of different types of cells comes with limitations. The application of immune cells in cell therapy can lead to cytokine storms and inappropriate responses to self-antigens. Also, the use of stem cells has the potential to create tumors. Also, cells may not migrate to the injury site after intravenous injection. Therefore, using exosomes from different cells as therapeutic candidates were proposed. Due to their small size and favorable characteristics, such as biocompatibility and immunocompatibility, the easy storage and isolation, exosomes have attracted much attention. They are used in treating many diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, orthopedic diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. However, the results of various studies have shown that the therapeutic efficiency of exosomes (Exo) can be increased by loading different drugs and microRNAs inside them (encapsulated exosomes). Therefore, analyzing studies investigating encapsulated exosomes' therapeutic ability is critical. In this study, we have examined the studies related to the use of encapsulated exosomes in treating diseases such as cancer and infectious diseases and their use in regenerative medicine. Compared to intact exosomes, the results show that the application of encapsulated exosomes has a higher therapeutic ability. Therefore it is suggested to use this method depending on the treatment type to increase the treatment's efficiency.

The Role of Non-Coding RNAs in Autophagy During Carcinogenesis

Macroautophagy (autophagy herein) is a cellular stress response and a survival pathway involved in self-renewal and quality control processes to maintain cellular homeostasis. The alteration of autophagy has been implicated in numerous diseases such as cancer where it plays a dual role. Autophagy serves as a tumor suppressor in the early phases of cancer formation with the restoration of homeostasis and eliminating cellular altered constituents, yet in later phases, autophagy may support and/or facilitate tumor growth, metastasis and may contribute to treatment resistance. Key components of autophagy interact with either pro- and anti-apoptotic factors regulating the proximity of tumor cells to apoptotic cliff promoting cell survival. Autophagy is regulated by key cell signaling pathways such as Akt (protein kinase B, PKB), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) involved in cell survival and metabolism. The expression of critical members of upstream cell signaling, as well as those directly involved in the autophagic and apoptotic machineries are regulated by microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Consequently, non-coding RNAs play a relevant role in carcinogenesis and treatment response in cancer. The review is an update of the current knowledge in the regulation by miRNA and lncRNA of the autophagic components and their functional impact to provide an integrated and comprehensive regulatory network of autophagy in cancer.

Targeting autophagy in prostate cancer: preclinical and clinical evidence for therapeutic response

Prostate cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide and new estimates revealed prostate cancer as the leading cause of death in men in 2021. Therefore, new strategies are pertinent in the treatment of this malignant disease. Macroautophagy/autophagy is a “self-degradation” mechanism capable of facilitating the turnover of long-lived and toxic macromolecules and organelles. Recently, attention has been drawn towards the role of autophagy in cancer and how its modulation provides effective cancer therapy. In the present review, we provide a mechanistic discussion of autophagy in prostate cancer. Autophagy can promote/inhibit proliferation and survival of prostate cancer cells. Besides, metastasis of prostate cancer cells is affected (via induction and inhibition) by autophagy. Autophagy can affect the response of prostate cancer cells to therapy such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy, given the close association between autophagy and apoptosis. Increasing evidence has demonstrated that upstream mediators such as AMPK, non-coding RNAs, KLF5, MTOR and others regulate autophagy in prostate cancer. Anti-tumor compounds, for instance phytochemicals, dually inhibit or induce autophagy in prostate cancer therapy. For improving prostate cancer therapy, nanotherapeutics such as chitosan nanoparticles have been developed. With respect to the context-dependent role of autophagy in prostate cancer, genetic tools such as siRNA and CRISPR-Cas9 can be utilized for targeting autophagic genes. Finally, these findings can be translated into preclinical and clinical studies to improve survival and prognosis of prostate cancer patients.

• Prostate cancer is among the leading causes of death in men where targeting autophagy is of importance in treatment;

• Autophagy governs proliferation and metastasis capacity of prostate cancer cells;

• Autophagy modulation is of interest in improving the therapeutic response of prostate cancer cells;

• Molecular pathways, especially involving non-coding RNAs, regulate autophagy in prostate cancer;

• Autophagy possesses both diagnostic and prognostic roles in prostate cancer, with promises for clinical application.

Investigation and confirmation of differentially expressed miRNAs, as well as target gene prediction in papillary thyroid cancer, with a special emphasis on the autophagy signaling pathway

Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) is the most common endocrine cancer. However, the role of biomechanics in the development and progression of PTC is obscure. The microarray dataset GSE104005 was examined to identify important microRNAs (miRNAs or miRs) and their probable roles in the carcinogenesis of PTC. The gene expression omnibus (GEO) database was used to obtain the data. R was used to access the differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) and genes (DEGs). The multiMiR software was used to predict DEM targets. To validate the top DEMs and DEGs, thirty tissue samples were obtained from PTC patients who had their thyroids removed and compared with 30 normal samples. The total RNA content of the tumor and corresponding non-tumoral adjacent samples were purified and converted to cDNA. Expression levels of top dysregulated miRNAs and their target and predicted DEG were evaluated using the RT-qPCR method. miR-182 and miR-183 were top upregulated miRs and miR-30d was the most downregulated miR among DEMs. Furthermore, FOXO1 which was shown to be targeted by aforementioned miRNAs, was the most downregulated genes among other DEGs. 10 hub nodes were detected by PPI construction. PTEN was the hub node with highest score. The in vitro gene expression analysis was also showed the same expression pattern in tissues. Significant increase in miR-182-5p and miR-183-5p expressions, as well as a significant decrease in FOXO1 and miR-30d-5p expressions, suggest that PTC cells may tend to preserve their autophagy capability.

Paradoxical effects of arsenic in the lungs

High levels (> 100 ug/L) of arsenic are known to cause lung cancer; however, whether low (≤ 10 ug/L) and medium (10 to 100 ug/L) doses of arsenic will cause lung cancer or other lung diseases, and whether arsenic has dose-dependent or threshold effects, remains unknown. Summarizing the results of previous studies, we infer that low- and medium-concentration arsenic cause lung diseases in a dose-dependent manner. Arsenic trioxide (ATO) is recognized as a chemotherapeutic drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), also having a significant effect on lung cancer. The anti-lung cancer mechanisms of ATO include inhibition of proliferation, promotion of apoptosis, anti-angiogenesis, and inhibition of tumor metastasis. In this review, we summarized the role of arsenic in lung disease from both pathogenic and therapeutic perspectives. Understanding the paradoxical effects of arsenic in the lungs may provide some ideas for further research on the occurrence and treatment of lung diseases.

Revisiting prostate cancer metabolism: From metabolites to disease and therapy

Prostate cancer (PCa), one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers worldwide, still presents important unmet clinical needs concerning treatment. In the last years, the metabolic reprogramming and the specificities of tumor cells emerged as an exciting field for cancer therapy. The unique features of PCa cells metabolism, and the activation of specific metabolic pathways, propelled the use of metabolic inhibitors for treatment. The present work revises the knowledge of PCa metabolism and the metabolic alterations that underlie the development and progression of the disease. A focus is given to the role of bioenergetic sources, namely, glucose, lipids, and glutamine sustaining PCa cell survival and growth. Moreover, it is described as the action of oncogenes/tumor suppressors and sex steroid hormones in the metabolic reprogramming of PCa. Finally, the status of PCa treatment based on the inhibition of metabolic pathways is presented. Globally, this review updates the landscape of PCa metabolism, highlighting the critical metabolic alterations that could have a clinical and therapeutic interest.

Statins: Epidrugs with effects on endothelial health?

BACKGROUND

Epigenetic events involving the methylation of CpG cites in DNA, histone modifications and noncoding RNAs correlated with many essential processes in human cells and diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins)-the LDL cholesterol-lowering drugs-are broadly used in cardio- and cerebro-vascular diseases. It is well established that statins exert pleiotropic functions, but how they exert effects on epigenetic modifications independently of HMG-CoA reductase inhibition is not yet clear. Thereby, understanding these mechanisms may pave the way for further clinical application of statin therapy.

DESIGN

Following and electronic database search, studies reporting substantial effects of statins on epigenetic reprogramming in both cultured cells and in vivo models were retrieved and reviewed.

RESULTS

Epigenetic mechanisms play an essential role in cellular development and function, and data collected in the past few years have revealed that many of the pleiotropic properties of statins are mediated by epigenetic mechanisms. Furthermore, those 'nonclassical' effects are not limited to CV field but they would extend to other conditions such as malignancies.

CONCLUSION

This review suggests that the epigenetic effects of statins mediate, at least in part, the pleiotropic actions of these drugs but further validation of such effects in clinical studies is yet to be provided.

microRNAs in liver and kidney ischemia reperfusion injury: insight to improve transplantation outcome

Ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI) is a condition that occurs wherever blood flow and oxygen is reduced or absent, such as trauma, vascular disease, stroke, and solid organ transplantation. This condition can lead to tissue damage, especially during organ transplantation. Under such circumstances, some signaling pathways are activated, leading to up- or down- regulation of several genes such as microRNAs (miRNAs) that might attenuate or ameliorate this status. Therefore, by manipulating miRNAs level, they can be used as a biomarker for early diagnosis of IRI or suggestive to be therapeutic agents in clinical situation in future.

Impact of atorvastatin loaded exosome as an anti-glioblastoma carrier to induce apoptosis of U87 cancer cells in 3D culture model

Exosomes (EXOs) are naturally occurring nanosized lipid bilayers that can be efficiently used as a drug delivery system to carry small pharmaceutical, biological molecules and pass major biological barriers such as the blood-brain barrier. It was hypothesized that EXOs derived from human endometrial stem cells (hEnSCs-EXOs) can be utilized as a drug carrier to enhance tumor-targeting drugs, especially for those have low solubility and limited oral bioactivity. In this study, atorvastatin (Ato) loaded EXOs (AtoEXOs) was prepared and characterized for its physical and biological activities in tumor growth suppression of 3 D glioblastoma model. The AtoEXOs were obtained in different methods to maximize drug encapsulation efficacy. The characterization of AtoEXOs was performed for its size, stability, drug release, and in vitro anti-tumor efficacy evaluated comprising inhibition of proliferation, apoptosis induction of tumor cells. Expression of apoptotic genes by Real time PCR, Annexin V/PI, tunnel assay was studied after 72 h exposing U87 cells where encapsulated in matrigel in different concentrations of AtoEXOs (5, 10 μM). The results showed that the prepared AtoEXOs possessed diameter ranging from 30-150 nm, satisfying stability and sustainable Ato release rate. The AtoEXOs was up taken by U87 and generated significant apoptotic effects while this inhibited tumor growth of U87 cells. Altogether, produced AtoEXOs formulation due to its therapeutic efficacy has the potential to be an adaptable approach to treat glioblastoma brain tumors.

Simvastatin induces breast cancer cell death through oxidative stress up-regulating miR-140-5p

Statins, a class of hyperlipidemic drugs, are widely used cholesterol lowering drugs that selectively inhibit 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase, which is the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis, leading to decreasing of cholesterol biosynthesis. Statins exert anti-tumoral effects on various cancer, including breast cancer. However, the molecular mechanisms for the actions were not fully elucidated. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the effects of statins on proliferation and apoptosis in the ER-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231. Our results showed that simvastatin increased the expression of miR-140-5p in a dose dependent manner via activating transcription factor NRF1, reduced cell proliferation and induced apoptosis, and we also found that SLC2A1 was a new target of miR-140-5p. In conclusion, data in this study shed light on the potential anti-tumoral effects of simvastatin in breast cancer and presents a highly promising therapeutic option, using drug and miRNA for combined treating cancers.

Dissecting miRNA facilitated physiology and function in human breast cancer for therapeutic intervention

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are key epigenomic regulators of biological processes in animals and plants. These small non coding RNAs form a complex networks that regulate cellular function and development. MiRNAs prevent translation by either inactivation or inducing degradation of mRNA, a major concern in post-transcriptional gene regulation. Aberrant regulation of gene expression by miRNAs is frequently observed in cancer. Overexpression of various 'oncomiRs' and silencing of tumor suppressor miRNAs are associated with various types of human cancers, although overall downregulation of miRNA expression is reported as a hallmark of cancer. Modulations of the total pool of cellular miRNA by alteration in genetic and epigenetic factors associated with the biogenesis of miRNA machinery. It also depends on the availability of cellular miRNAs from its store in the organelles which affect tumor development and cancer progression. Here, we have dissected the roles and pathways of various miRNAs during normal cellular and molecular functions as well as during breast cancer progression. Recent research works and prevailing views implicate that there are two major types of miRNAs; (i) intracellular miRNAs and (ii) extracellular miRNAs. Concept, that the functions of intracellular miRNAs are driven by cellular organelles in mammalian cells. Extracellular miRNAs function in cell-cell communication in extracellular spaces and distance cells through circulation. A detailed understanding of organelle driven miRNA function and the precise role of extracellular miRNAs, pre- and post-therapeutic implications of miRNAs in this scenario would open several avenues for further understanding of miRNA function and can be better exploited for the treatment of breast cancers.

Atorvastatin-induced senescence of hepatocellular carcinoma is mediated by downregulation of hTERT through the suppression of the IL-6/STAT3 pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a hepatic malignancy, has a poor prognosis and contributes to cancer-related death worldwide. Cellular senescence is an anticancer therapeutic strategy that causes irreversible cell cycle arrest and enables immune-mediated clearance of cancer cells. Atorvastatin, an HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor, has been shown to inhibit tumor growth and induce apoptosis or autophagy in malignant tumors. However, whether atorvastatin can induce HCC cell senescence and the mechanisms involved are poorly understood. The effects of atorvastatin-induced senescence were examined in both HCC cells and mouse xenograft models. The phenomenon and mechanism of senescence were examined by cell cycle analysis, senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining and western blotting in HCC cells, and HCC tissues from mice were analyzed by immunohistochemical (IHC) staining. We demonstrated that atorvastatin induced cell growth inhibition and G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest, leading to senescence in HCC cells. Atorvastatin-induced senescence was independent of p53, p14, and p16, and atorvastatin not only decreased the secretion of IL-6, a major senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) factor, and the phosphorylation of STAT3 but also inhibited the expression of hTERT, a catalytic subunit of telomerase. Supplementation with exogenous IL-6 reversed both atorvastatin-induced suppression of STAT3 phosphorylation and hTERT expression and atorvastatin-induced senescence. Overexpression of constitutively activated STAT3 rescued HCC cells from atorvastatin-induced hTERT suppression and senescence. Moreover, atorvastatin decreased tumor growth in mouse xenograft models. Consistent with these results, atorvastatin decreased the IL-6, p-STAT3, and hTERT levels and increased β-gal expression in tumor sections. Taken together, these data indicate that atorvastatin can induce atypical cellular senescence in HCC cells to inhibit tumor growth, an effect mediated by downregulation of hTERT through suppression of the IL-6/STAT3 pathway.

Interactions Among Non-Coding RNAs in Diabetic Nephropathy

Diabetic Nephropathy (DN) is the most common cause of End-stage renal disease (ESRD). Although various treatments and diagnosis applications are available, DN remains a clinical and economic burden. Recent findings showed that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) play an important role in DN progression, potentially can be used as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. NcRNAs refers to the RNA species that do not encode for any protein, and the most known ncRNAs are the microRNAs (miRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). Dysregulation of these ncRNAs was reported before in DN patients and animal models of DN. Importantly, there are some interactions between these ncRNAs to regulate the crucial steps in DN progression. Here, we aimed to discuss the reported ncRNAs in DN and their interactions with critical genes in DN progression. Elucidating these ncRNAs regulatory network will allow for a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms in DN and how they can act as new biomarkers for DN and also as the potential targets for treatment.

Proteome and phosphoproteome reveal mechanisms of action of atorvastatin against esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Statins comprise a class of prescription drugs used for reducing cholesterol. Evidence has also showed that statins could reduce cancer incidence. However, the anti-tumor mechanism of statins has not been fully defined. Here, we found that atorvastatin inhibited proliferation of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) cells. The underlying mechanisms were explored by mass spectrometry. The proteome data revealed that atorvastatin inhibited the cAMP and Rap1 signal pathways, except for Ras signal pathway. Interestingly, phosphoproteome profiles suggested that ERK^T185/Y187, CDK1^T14, and BRAC1^S1189 phosphorylation–mediated Th17 cell differentiation, Gap junction and the Platinum drug resistance pathway were down-regulated after atorvastatin treatment. The phosphorylation levels of ERK^T185/Y187, CDK1^T14 and BRAC1^S1189 were confirmed by western blotting in KYSE150 cells. More importantly, atorvastatin suppresses ESCC tumor growth in PDX models. The molecular changes in tumor tissues were confirmed by immunohistochemistry. In conclusion, deep-proteome and phosphoproteome analysis reveal a comprehensive mechanism that contributes to atorvastatin’s anti-tumor effect.

A ceRNA Circuitry Involving the Long Noncoding RNA Klhl14-AS, Pax8, and Bcl2 Drives Thyroid Carcinogenesis

Klhl14-AS is a long noncoding RNA expressed since early specification of thyroid bud and is the most enriched gene in the mouse thyroid primordium at E10.5. Here, we studied its involvement in thyroid carcinogenesis by analyzing its expression in cancer tissues and different models of neoplastic transformation. Compared with normal thyroid tissue and cells, Klhl14-AS was significantly downregulated in human thyroid carcinoma tissue specimens, particularly the anaplastic histotype, thyroid cancer cell lines, and rodent models of thyroid cancer. Downregulating the expression of Klhl14-AS in normal thyroid cells decreased the expression of thyroid differentiation markers and cell death and increased cell viability. These effects were mediated by the binding of Klhl14-AS to two miRNAs, Mir182-5p and Mir20a-5p, which silenced Pax8 and Bcl2, both essential players of thyroid differentiation. MIR182-5p and MIR20a-5p were upregulated in human thyroid cancer and thyroid cancer experimental models and their effects on Pax8 and Bcl2 were rescued by Klhl14-AS overexpression, confirming Klhl14-AS as a ceRNA for both Pax8 and Bcl2. This work connects deregulation of differentiation with increased proliferation and survival in thyroid neoplastic cells and highlights a novel ceRNA circuitry involving key regulators of thyroid physiology. SIGNIFICANCE: This study describes a new ceRNA with potential tumor suppression activity and helps us better understand the regulatory mechanisms during thyroid differentiation and carcinogenesis.

Excessive apoptosis of podocytes caused by dysregulation of microRNA-182-5p and CD2AP confers to an increased risk of diabetic nephropathy

The functions of miR-182-5p in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy (DN) remain largely unclear. Here, we studied the roles and relationship between miR-182-5p and CD2AP in the development of DN. We used real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to compare miR-182-5p expression between DN and control groups, while computational analysis and luciferase assays were used to confirm CD2AP as a miR-182-5p target. Western blot and real-time PCR were then used to measure the messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression of CD2AP in the presence of miR-182-5p. The results showed that miR-182-5p was highly expressed in cells isolated from people with DN. In addition, the luciferase activity of cells transfected with wild-type/mutant CD2AP confirmed CD2AP as a direct target of miR-182-5p. The expression levels of CD2AP mRNA and protein were much lower in the DN group compared with that in the normal group. In addition, the expression levels of CD2AP mRNA and protein were evidently increased by a miR-182-5p inhibitor, but notably downregulated by miR-182-5p mimics or CD2AP small interfering RNA (siRNA). Furthermore, miR-182-5p and CD2Ap siRNA significantly reduced the survival rate and viability of transfected cells, while the miR-182-5p inhibitor exhibited an opposite effect. These findings indicated the presence of a negative regulatory relationship between miR-182-5p and CD2AP in podocytes cells and suggested that the overexpression of miR-182-5p contributes to the pathogenesis of DN.

Impact of Polypharmacy on Candidate Biomarker miRNomes for the Diagnosis of Fibromyalgia and Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: Striking Back on Treatments

Fibromyalgia (FM) and myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) are diseases of unknown etiology presenting complex and often overlapping symptomatology. Despite promising advances on the study of miRNomes of these diseases, no validated molecular diagnostic biomarker yet exists. Since FM and ME/CFS patient treatments commonly include polypharmacy, it is of concern that biomarker miRNAs are masked by drug interactions. Aiming at discriminating between drug-effects and true disease-associated differential miRNA expression, we evaluated the potential impact of commonly prescribed drugs on disease miRNomes, as reported by the literature. By using the web search tools SM2miR, Pharmaco-miR, and repoDB, we found a list of commonly prescribed drugs that impact FM and ME/CFS miRNomes and therefore could be interfering in the process of biomarker discovery. On another end, disease-associated miRNomes may incline a patient’s response to treatment and toxicity. Here, we explored treatments for diseases in general that could be affected by FM and ME/CFS miRNomes, finding a long list of them, including treatments for lymphoma, a type of cancer affecting ME/CFS patients at a higher rate than healthy population. We conclude that FM and ME/CFS miRNomes could help refine pharmacogenomic/pharmacoepigenomic analysis to elevate future personalized medicine and precision medicine programs in the clinic.

Differential expression of circulating miRNAs as a novel tool to assess BAG3-associated familial dilated cardiomyopathy

A new familial dilated cardiomyopathy (FDCM) was found related to mutations in BAG3 gene. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) represent new targets of FDCM, although no studies have assessed clinical association between Bcl2-associated athanogene 3 (BAG3)-related DCM and miRNAs. Here, we studied whether a clinical association between BAG3-related FDCM and circulating miRNAs may have diagnostic and prognostic value in a small cohort of familial related individuals carrying a BAG3 mutation (BAG3+) and/or diagnosed of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) (DCM+). The analysis of 1759 circulating miRNAs showed significant differences between BAG3+ and BAG3- individuals for miRNAs mir-3191-3p, 6769b-3p, 1249-ep, 154-5p, 6855-5p, and 182-5p, while comparisons between BAG3+/DCM+ versus BAG3+/DCM- were restricted to miRNAs mir-154-5p, 6885-5p, and 182-5p, showing significant correlation with systolic and diastolic blood pressure, A wave, left atrium length, and left atrium area. Additionally, when stratified by gender and age, miRNAs were statistically correlated with critical parameters, including left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF) and ventricular diameter, in women and young men. Likewise, 56% of BAG3+/DCM+, significantly co-expressed mir-154-5p and mir-182-5p, and a slight 4% did not express such combination, suggesting that co-expression of mir-154-5p and mir-182-5p may potentially show diagnostic value. Further studies will require long-term follow-up, and validation in larger populations.

Metabolic Alterations, Aggressive Hormone-Naïve Prostate Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease: A Complex Relationship

Background: Epidemiological studies suggest a possible relationship between metabolic alterations, cardiovascular disease and aggressive prostate cancer, however, no clear consensus has been reached. Objective: The aim of the study was to analyze the recent literature and summarize our experience on the association between metabolic disorders, aggressive hormone-naïve prostate cancer and cardiovascular disease. Method: We identified relevant papers by searching in electronic databases such as Scopus, Life Science Journals, and Index Medicus/Medline. Moreover, we showed our experience on the reciprocal relationship between metabolic alterations and aggressive prostate cancer, without the influence of hormone therapy, as well the role of coronary and carotid vasculopathy in advanced prostate carcinoma. Results: Prostate cancer cells have an altered metabolic homeostatic control linked to an increased aggressivity and cancer mortality. The absence of discrimination of risk factors as obesity, systemic arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia and inaccurate selection of vascular diseases as coronary and carotid damage at initial diagnosis of prostate cancer could explain the opposite results in the literature. Systemic inflammation and oxidative stress associated with metabolic alterations and cardiovascular disease can also contribute to prostate cancer progression and increased tumor aggressivity. Conclusions: Metabolic alterations and cardiovascular disease influence aggressive and metastatic prostate cancer. Therefore, a careful evaluation of obesity, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, systemic arterial hypertension, together with a careful evaluation of cardiovascular status, in particular coronary and carotid vascular disease, should be carried out after an initial diagnosis of prostatic carcinoma.

Identification and expression analysis of a novel miRNA derived from ERV-E1 LTR in Equus caballus

Horses (Equus caballus) have been domesticated and bred to enhance speed, strength, and agility. Members of the Equus caballus Endogenous Retrovirus (EqERV) family affect several of these abilities in horses. EqERV elements have been integrated in the horse genome during evolution and generate repeat elements such as long terminal repeats (LTRs). LTR sequences are involved in retrovirus replication and play an essential function in post-transcriptional control mechanisms, such as by providing binding sites for microRNAs (miRNAs) or generating miRNA precursors. In this study, we identified a novel miRNA derived from EqERV-E1 LTR using various bioinformatics tools. To examine the relationship between EqERV-E1 LTR and similar elements, we used BLAST2seq and phylogenetic analysis. LTR sequences were located in the untranslated region (UTR) of mRNAs and also formed the stem-loop secondary structure. The sequence was registered in the DDBJ database as LTR derived miRNA under the accession number corresponding to LC383797 (referred to eca-miR-1804). Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) to confirm the expression of eca-miR-1804 and the similar miR-1255a, showed an almost identical expression pattern in eight different equine tissues. Therefore, these data imply that the LTR could function as an miRNA, which is expressed in the examined equine tissues. In addition, the current study provides inputs for additional functional studies concerning the LTR of other EqERV families.

Atorvastatin induces autophagy in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells

This article explores the effects of atorvastatin on cultured breast cancer cells. Our experiment demonstrated that atorvastatin triggered autophagy and inhibited proliferation in breast cancer cells. A CCK8 assay indicated that atorvastatin can inhibit the activity of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Western blotting results showed that atorvastatin increased the conversion of light chain 3 (LC3)-I to LC3-phosphatidylethanolamine conjugate (LC3-II). Confocal microscopy was used to reveal the appearance of a punctate structure in the cytoplasm, and electron microscopy was used to reveal the formation of double-membrane autophagosome. In conclusion, our study showed that atorvastatin may affect MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells by inducing autophagy.

In-Silico Integration Approach to Identify a Key miRNA Regulating a Gene Network in Aggressive Prostate Cancer

Like other cancer diseases, prostate cancer (PC) is caused by the accumulation of genetic alterations in the cells that drives malignant growth. These alterations are revealed by gene profiling and copy number alteration (CNA) analysis. Moreover, recent evidence suggests that also microRNAs have an important role in PC development. Despite efforts to profile PC, the alterations (gene, CNA, and miRNA) and biological processes that correlate with disease development and progression remain partially elusive. Many gene signatures proposed as diagnostic or prognostic tools in cancer poorly overlap. The identification of co-expressed genes, that are functionally related, can identify a core network of genes associated with PC with a better reproducibility. By combining different approaches, including the integration of mRNA expression profiles, CNAs, and miRNA expression levels, we identified a gene signature of four genes overlapping with other published gene signatures and able to distinguish, in silico, high Gleason-scored PC from normal human tissue, which was further enriched to 19 genes by gene co-expression analysis. From the analysis of miRNAs possibly regulating this network, we found that hsa-miR-153 was highly connected to the genes in the network. Our results identify a four-gene signature with diagnostic and prognostic value in PC and suggest an interesting gene network that could play a key regulatory role in PC development and progression. Furthermore, hsa-miR-153, controlling this network, could be a potential biomarker for theranostics in high Gleason-scored PC.

Dysregulation and functional roles of miR-183-96-182 cluster in cancer cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis

Previous studies have reported aberrant expression of the miR-183-96-182 cluster in a variety of tumors, which indicates its' diagnostic or prognostic value. However, a key characteristic of the miR-183-96-182 cluster is its varied expression levels, and pleomorphic functional roles in different tumors or under different conditions. In most tumor types, the cluster is highly expressed and promotes tumorigenesis, cancer progression and metastasis; yet tumor suppressive effects have also been reported in some tumors. In the present study, we discuss the upstream regulators and the downstream target genes of miR-183-96-182 cluster, and highlight the dysregulation and functional roles of this cluster in various tumor cells. Newer insights summarized in this review will help readers understand the different facets of the miR-183-96-182 cluster in cancer development and progression.

Protection of macrophages from intracellular pathogens by miR-182-5p mimic-a gene expression meta-analysis approach

The goals of this study were to (a) define which host genes are of particular importance during the interactions between macrophages and intracellular pathogens, and (b) use this knowledge to gain fresh, experimental understanding of how macrophage activities may be manipulated during host defense. We designed an in silico method for meta-analysis of microarray gene expression data, and used this to combine data from 16 different studies of cells in the monocyte-macrophage lineage infected with seven different pathogens. Three thousand four hundred ninety-eight genes were identified, which we call the macrophage intracellular pathogen response (macIPR) gene set. As expected, the macIPR gene set showed a strong bias toward genes previously associated with the immune response. Predicted target sites for miR-182-5p (miR-182) were strongly over-represented among macIPR genes, indicating an unexpected role for miR-182-regulatable genes during intracellular pathogenesis. We therefore transfected primary human alveolar macrophage-like monocyte-derived macrophages from multiple different donors with synthetic miR-182, and found that miR-182 overexpression (a) increases proinflammatory gene induction during infection with Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain (LVS), (b) primes macrophages for increased autophagy, and (c) enhances macrophage control of both gram negative F. tularensisLVS and gram positive Bacillus anthracisANR-1 spores. These data therefore suggest a new application for miR-182 in promoting resistance to intracellular pathogens.

Targeting MicroRNAs in Prostate Cancer Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is one of the most important treatment options for localized early-stage or advanced-stage prostate cancer (CaP). Radioresistance (relapse after radiotherapy) is a major challenge for the current radiotherapy. There is great interest in investigating mechanisms of radioresistance and developing novel treatment strategies to overcome radioresistance. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level, participating in numerous physiological and pathological processes including cancer invasion, progression, metastasis and therapeutic resistance. Emerging evidence indicates that miRNAs play a critical role in the modulation of key cellular pathways that mediate response to radiation, influencing the radiosensitivity of the cancer cells through interplaying with other biological processes such as cell cycle checkpoints, apoptosis, autophagy, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and cancer stem cells. Here, we summarize several important miRNAs in CaP radiation response and then discuss the regulation of the major signalling pathways and biological processes by miRNAs in CaP radiotherapy. Finally, we emphasize on microRNAs as potential predictive biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets to improve CaP radiosensitivity.

Pleiotropic and Adverse Effects of Statins-Do Epigenetics Play a Role?

Statins are widely used to prevent major cardiovascular events by lowering serum cholesterol. There is evidence that statins have pleiotropic effects-that is, cholesterol-independent effects-that may also confer protection from cardiovascular disease and potentially numerous other pathologies, including cancer. Statins also have a number of well described adverse effects, including myopathy, rhabdomyolysis, liver damage, and type 2 diabetes. This paper examines the evidence of epigenetic modifications as a contributory factor to the pleiotropic and adverse effects of statins. In vitro and animal studies have shown that statins can inhibit histone deacetylase activity and increase histone acetylation. Similarly, there is evidence that statins may inhibit both histone and DNA methyltransferases and subsequently demethylate histone residues and DNA, respectively. These changes have been shown to alter expression of various genes, including tumor suppressor genes and genes thought to have anti-atherosclerotic actions. Statins have also been shown to influence the expression of numerous microRNAs that suppress the translation of proteins involved in tumorigenesis and vascular function. Whether the adverse effects of statins may also have an epigenetic component has been less widely studied, although there is evidence that microRNA expression may be altered in statin-induced muscle and liver damage. As epigenetics and microRNAs influence gene expression, these changes could contribute to the pleiotropic and adverse effects of statins and have long-lasting effects on the health of statin users.

Atorvastatin inhibits cholesterol-induced caspase-3 cleavage through down-regulation of p38 and up-regulation of Bcl-2 in the rat carotid artery

AIM

Atherosclerotic lesions in the carotid arteries lead to a broad range of cerebrovascular disorders such as vascular dementia and ischaemic stroke. Recent studies have verified the beneficial role of atorvastatin (AV) in atherosclerosis. Despite a large body of studies, the mechanisms underlying this effect have not been completely explained. In this study, several experiments were performed on atherosclerotic rat models to investigate the anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effect of AV in the carotid artery.

METHODS

In this experimental study, 40 male Wistar rats (250 ± 25 g) were randomly divided into four groups: rats on a normal diet (ND; n = 10); a high-cholesterol diet (HD; n = 10); a high-cholesterol diet plus AV (HD + AV; n = 10) ; and the AV control group (AV; n = 10). Cleavage of caspase-3 protein, expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) as well as phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) were determined by immunoblotting assay in the carotid artery homogenate. Plasma atherogenic indices, including total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) were measured by colorimetric assay at the end of the experiment. Plasma levels of oxidised LDL (oxLDL) were measured by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

After eight weeks of feeding with a high-cholesterol diet, an elevated level of oxLDL was observed in the plasma in the HD group compared with the ND group [214.42 ± 17.46 vs 69.13 ± 9.92 mg/dl (5.55 ± 0.45 vs 1.78 ± 0.26 mmol/l); p < 0.01]. AV administration significantly reduced oxLDL levels in the HD + AV compared to the HD group [126.52 ± 9.46 vs 214.42 ± 17.46 mg/dl (3.28 ± 0.25 vs 5.55 ± 0.45 mmol/l); p < 0.01]. Results also showed that compared with the HC group, the HC + AV group had lower levels of p38 phosphorylation (p < 0.05) and higher levels of Bcl-2 expression (p < 0.05). Lower levels of cleaved caspase-3 were observed in the HC + AV group in comparison with the HC group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The resultant data suggest that the anti-apoptotic effect of AV could be partially mediated by the pro-inflammatory protein p38 MAPK and the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 in the rat carotid artery. Atorvastatin can therefore be considered a target drug in the prevention or development of atherosclerotic events.

The emergence of noncoding RNAs as Heracles in autophagy

Macroautophagy/autophagy is a catabolic process that is widely found in nature. Over the past few decades, mounting evidence has indicated that noncoding RNAs, ranging from small noncoding RNAs to long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and even circular RNAs (circRNAs), mediate the transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of autophagy-related genes by participating in autophagy regulatory networks. The differential expression of noncoding RNAs affects autophagy levels at different physiological and pathological stages, including embryonic proliferation and differentiation, cellular senescence, and even diseases such as cancer. We summarize the current knowledge regarding noncoding RNA dysregulation in autophagy and investigate the molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying noncoding RNA involvement in autophagy regulatory networks. Then, we integrate public resources to predict autophagy-related noncoding RNAs across species and discuss strategies for and the challenges of identifying autophagy-related noncoding RNAs. This article will deepen our understanding of the relationship between noncoding RNAs and autophagy, and provide new insights to specifically target noncoding RNAs in autophagy-associated therapeutic strategies.

miR182 activates the Ras-MEK-ERK pathway in human oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma by suppressing RASA1 and SPRED1

Purpose

The constitutive activation of the Ras–MEK–ERK signaling pathway in oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) has been found to be tightly controlled at multiple levels under physiological conditions. RASA1 and SPRED1 are two important negative regulators of this pathway, but the exact regulating mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to explore the potential regulating mechanisms involved in the Ras–MEK–ERK signaling pathway in OSCC.

Materials and methods

MicroRNA (miRNA) expression was detected by quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. The protein levels of RASA1, SPRED1, and signaling proteins were detected by Western blot. Cell growth was determined using CCK-8 reagent, colony formation was stained by crystal violet, and cell invasion was tested using transwell chambers. Cell apoptosis and the cell cycle were then analyzed by flow cytometry. The binding of miR182 with RASA1 or SPRED1 was evaluated by luciferase reporter assays on a dual-luciferase reporter system.

Results

The expression of miR182 was found to be upregulated significantly in malignant oral carcinoma tissues compared with the adjacent nonmalignant tissues, and was inversely correlated with protein levels of RASA1 and SPRED1. Overexpression of miR182 in OSCC cell lines sustained Ras–MEK–ERK signaling-pathway activation, and promoted cell proliferation, cell-cycle progression, colony formation, and invasion capacity, whereas miR182 downregulation alleviated these properties significantly in vitro. Furthermore, we demonstrated that miR182 exerted its oncogenic role in OSCC by directly targeting and suppressing RASA1 and SPRED1.

Conclusion

Our results bring new insights into the important role of miR182 in the activation of the Ras–MEK–ERK signaling pathway, and suggest that miR182 may be used as a potential target for treatment of OSCC, prompting further investigation into miRNA antisense oligonucleotides for cancer therapy.

Role of miR-182 in response to oxidative stress in the cell fate of human fallopian tube epithelial cells

High grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSC) is a DNA instable tumor and its precursor is commonly found originating from the fimbriated end of the fallopian tube secretory epithelial (FTSE) cells. The local stresses via ovulation and related inflammation are risks for HGSC. In this study, we examined the cellular and molecular responses of FTSE cells to stress. We found that excess intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in normal FTSE cells upregulated a subset of microRNA expression (defined as ROSmiRs). Most ROSmiRs' expression and function were influenced and regulated by p53, and together they drove the cells into stress-induced premature senescence (SIPS). However, ROS-induced miR-182 is regulated by β-catenin, not by p53. In normal FTSE cells, miR-182 overexpression triggers cellular senescence by p53-mediated upregulation of p21. Conversely, in cells with p53 mutations, miR-182 overexpression no longer enhances p21 but functions as an “Onco-miR”. p53 dysfunction is a prerequisite for miR-182-mediated tumorigenesis. In addition, we found that human follicular fluid could significantly induce intracellular ROS in normal FTSE cells. These findings suggest that ROS and p53 mutations may trigger a series of events, beginning with overexpressing miR-182 by ROS and β-catenin, impairing the DNA damage response, promoting DNA instability, bypassing senescence and eventually leading to DNA instable tumors in FTSE cells.

miR-182-5p Inhibition Ameliorates Ischemic Acute Kidney Injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) remains a major clinical event with high mortality rates. We previously identified renal miR-182 as the main driver of post-transplantation AKI. Therefore, we tested the causal inference of miR-182 by inhibiting its renal expression in vivo. In 45 rats AKI was induced by right nephrectomy and contralateral clamping of the renal pedicle for 40 minutes. Systemically administered antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) inhibited miR-182 in the kidneys up to 96 hours. The maximum creatinine elevation was on day 2 after injury (mg/dL; median and interquartile range): ASO 2.5mg/kg: 1.9 (1.3; 3.2), ASO 25mg/kg: 2.8 (0.7; 5.0), mismatch oligonucleotide (MM) 25mg/kg: 5.7 (5,0; 5.8), saline: 4.4 (3.5; 5.8) (P = 0.016, analysis of variance). Blinded semiquantitative histologic evaluation of renal biopsies showed better preserved morphology in both ASO groups than saline- and MM-treated kidneys (median and interquartile range of overall injury scores): ASO both concentrations 1 (1, 1), saline 3 (3, 3) and MM 3 (3, 3) (P< 0.001, analysis of variance). ASO facilitated cell proliferation, metabolism, and angiogenesis on a genome-wide level. ASO when applied in normothermic kidney machine perfusion reduced renal miR-182 expression by more than two magnitudes. In summary, we showed that in vivo inhibition of miR-182 by ASO improved kidney function and morphology after AKI. This technique may be applicable to reduce the high rate of AKI in the human renal transplantation setting.

Identification of reliable reference genes for quantitative gene expression studies in oral squamous cell carcinomas compared to adjacent normal tissues in the F344 rat model

Oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCCs) induced in F344 rats by 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (4-NQO) demonstrate considerable phenotypic similarity to human oral cancers and the model has been widely used for carcinogenesis and chemoprevention studies. Molecular characterization of this model needs reliable reference genes (RGs) to avoid false- positive and -negative results for proper interpretation of gene expression data between tumor and adjacent normal tissues. Microarray analysis of 11 pairs of OSCC and site-matched phenotypically normal oral tissues from 4-NQO-treated rats identified 10 stably expressed genes in OSCC compared to adjacent normal tissues (p>0.5, CV<15%) that could serve as potential RGs in this model. The commonly used 27 RGs in the rat were also analyzed based on microarray data and most of them were found unsuitable for RGs in this model. Traditional RGs such as ACTB and GAPDH were significantly altered in OSCC compared to adjacent normal tissues (p<0.01, n=11); however, the Hsp90ab1 was ranked as the best RG candidate and the combination of Hsp90ab1 and HPRT1 was identified by NormFinder to be a superior reference for gene normalization among the commonly used RGs. This result was also validated by RT-PCR based on the selected top RG candidate pool. These data suggest that there are no common RGs suitable for different models and RG(s) should be identified before gene expression analysis. We successfully identified Hsp90ab1 as a stable RG in 4-NQO-induced OSCC compared to adjacent normal tissues in F344 rats. The combination of two stably expressed genes may be a better option for gene normalization in tissue samples.

The effects of metformin and simvastatin on the growth of LNCaP and RWPE-1 prostate epithelial cell lines

The anti-diabetic drug metformin and cholesterol-lowering statins inhibit prostate cancer cell growth in vitro and have been linked with lowered risk of prostate cancer in epidemiological studies. We evaluated the effects of these drugs on cancerous and non-cancerous prostate epithelial cell lines. Cancer (LNCaP) and normal (RWPE-1) prostate epithelial cell lines were treated with pharmacologic concentrations of metformin and simvastatin alone and in combinations. Relative changes in cell number were measured with crystal violet staining method. Drug effects on apoptosis and cell cycle were measured with flow cytometry. We also measured changes in the activation and expression of a set of reported target proteins of metformin and statins with Western blotting. Metformin decreased the relative cell number of LNCaP cells by inducing G1 cell cycle block, autophagy and apoptosis, and slightly increased cytosolic ATP levels, whereas RWPE-1 cells were resistant to metformin. However, RWPE-1 cells were sensitive to simvastatin, which induced G2 cell cycle block, autophagy and apoptosis, and increased cytosolic ATP levels in these cells. Combination of metformin and simvastatin synergistically decreased cytosolic ATP levels, increased autophagy and instead of apoptosis, induced necrosis in LNCaP cells. Synergistic effects were not observed in RWPE-1 cells. These results suggest, that prostate cancer cells may be more vulnerable to combined growth-inhibiting effects of metformin and simvastatin compared to normal cells. The data presented here provide evidence for the potency of combined metformin and statin, also at pharmacologic concentrations, as a chemotherapeutic option for prostate cancer.

Oncological miR-182-3p, a Novel Smooth Muscle Cell Phenotype Modulator, Evidences From Model Rats and Patients

OBJECTIVE

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) phenotype change is a hallmark of vascular remodeling, which contributes to atherosclerotic diseases and can be regulated via microRNA-dependent mechanisms. We recently identified that asymmetrical dimethylarginine positively correlates to vascular remodeling-based diseases. We hypothesized that asymmetrical dimethylarginine induces smooth muscle cell (SMC) phenotypic change via a microRNA-dependent mechanism.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Microarray analysis enabled the identification of downregulation of miR-182-3p in asymmetrical dimethylarginine-treated human aortic artery SMCs. The myeloid-associated differentiation marker (MYADM) was identified as the downstream target of miR-182-3p and implicated to contribute to miR-182-3p knockdown-mediated SMC phenotype change, which was evidenced by the increased proliferation and migration and reduced expression levels of phenotype-related genes in human aortic artery SMCs through the ERK/MAP (extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein) kinase-dependent mechanism. When inhibiting MYADM in the presence of miR-182-3p inhibitor or overexpressing MYADM in the presence of pre-miR-182-3p, human aortic artery SMCs were reversed to the differentiation phenotype. In vivo, adeno-miR-182-3p markedly suppressed carotid neointimal formation by using balloon-injured rat carotid artery model, specifically via decreased MYADM expression, whereas adeno-miR-182-3p inhibitor significantly promoted neointimal formation. Atherosclerotic lesions from patients with high asymmetrical dimethylarginine plasma levels exhibited decreased miR-182-3p expression levels and elevated MYADM expression levels.

CONCLUSIONS

miR-182-3p is a novel SMC phenotypic modulator by targeting MYADM.

Statin Use at the Time of Initiation of Androgen Deprivation Therapy and Time to Progression in Patients With Hormone-Sensitive Prostate Cancer

IMPORTANCE

Statin use has been associated with improved prostate cancer outcomes. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) is a precursor of testosterone and a substrate for SLCO2B1, an organic anionic transporter. We previously demonstrated that genetic variants of SLCO2B1 correlated with time to progression (TTP) during receipt of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). Statins also use SLCO2B1 to enter cells, and thus we hypothesized that they may compete with DHEAS uptake by the tumor cells.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether statin use prolongs TTP during ADT for hormone-sensitive prostate cancer.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

In vitro studies were performed using prostate cancer cell lines at an academic, comprehensive cancer center. Statin use was retrospectively analyzed in 926 patients who had received ADT for biochemical or metastatic recurrence or de novo metastatic prostate cancer between January 1996 and November 2013.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

To determine whether statins interfere with DHEAS uptake, we performed in vitro studies using prostate cancer cell lines. Next, we queried our institutional clinical database to assess for an association between statin use and TTP during ADT using multivariable Cox regression analysis and adjusted for known prognostic factors.

RESULTS

In vitro, we demonstrated that statins block DHEAS uptake by competitively binding to SLCO2B1. In our ADT cohort of 926 patients, 283 (31%) were taking a statin at ADT initiation. After a median follow-up of 5.8 years, 644 patients (70%) had experienced disease progression while receiving ADT. Median TTP during ADT was 20.3 months (95% CI, 18-24 months). Men taking statins had a longer median TTP during ADT compared with nonusers (27.5 [95% CI, 21.1-37.7] vs 17.4 [95% CI, 14.9-21.1] months; P < .001). The association remained statistically significant after adjusting for predefined prognostic factors (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.83 [95% CI, 0.69-0.99]; P = .04). The positive statin effect was observed for both patients with and without metastases (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.79 [95% CI, 0.58-1.07] for M0 disease and 0.84 [95% CI, 0.67-1.06] for M1 disease; P for interaction = .72).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Statin use at the time of ADT initiation was associated with a significantly longer TTP during ADT even after adjustment for known prognostic factors. Our in vitro finding that statins competitively reduce DHEAS uptake, thus effectively decreasing the available intratumoral androgen pool, affords a plausible mechanism to support the clinical observation of prolonged TTP in statin users.

Atorvastatin restricts HIV replication in CD4+ T cells by upregulation of p21

OBJECTIVE

Antigen persistence due to HIV is a major source of inflammation and substantial immune activation, both of which are linked to accelerated aging. This illustrates the need to reduce immune activation in these patients and subsequently decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases and other non-AIDS-defining comorbidities.

METHODS

CD4 T cells were infected with HIV-1 isolates in the presence or absence of atorvastatin (0.25 to 1 μg/ml) for 24-48 h. Atorvastatin-induced anti-inflammatory functions and anti-viral replication were measured in vitro.

RESULTS

Atorvastatin, a lipid-lowering medication, exerted a broad spectrum of anti-inflammatory functions by reducing T-cell immune activation markers (e.g. CD38, HLA-DR and Ki67), lowering HIV-1 co-receptor CCR-5, and decreasing proliferative capabilities of CD4 T cells in vitro. In contrast, atorvastatin expanded regulatory T cells (Tregs) and upregulated the expression of T-cell immunoglobulin and ITIM domain (TIGIT), which enhanced the suppressive activity of Tregs. Furthermore, atorvastatin upregulated the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21, which is also known as cip-1 and waf-1, in the CD4 T cells. Upregulation of p21 in CD4 T cells rendered them less susceptible to HIV-1 infection and replication whereas siRNA-mediated p21 depletion and/or p21 selective inhibitor rescued viral replication. Interestingly, atorvastatin reduced HIV infection in both rested and phytohemagglutinin-activated CD4 T cells in vitro. Finally, atorvastatin mediated p21 upregulation occurred via mevalonate pathway, but independent of p53.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrate a novel mechanism by which atorvastatin induced resistance of CD4 T cells to HIV-1 infection via p21 upregulation and suggest that statins may hold particular promise for some HIV-infected individuals.

Mangiferin inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis in human prostate cancer cells is correlated with downregulation of B-cell lymphoma-2 and upregulation of microRNA-182

Mangiferin, a flavonoid extracted from the mango tree, possesses anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-herpes simplex and antitumor activity, and is able to affect immune function. The present study investigated the anticancer effects of mangiferin treatment on PC3 human prostate cancer cells, and the potential underlying mechanisms. In the present study, an MTT assay was used to analyze the proliferation of PC3 cells. Subsequently, flow cytometry and colorimetric assay kits were utilized to measure the PC3 cell apoptotic rate. The expression levels of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and microRNA-182 (miR-182) were detected using western blot analysis and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, respectively. Finally, miR-182 and anti-miR-182 were transfected into PC3 cells, which were used to investigate the effects of mangiferin. Mangiferin treatment reduced the proliferation of PC3 human prostate cancer cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. In addition, mangiferin was able to promote apoptosis and induce the caspase-3 activity of PC3 human prostate cancer cells. Mangiferin treatment was also able to significantly reduce Bcl-2 expression levels and enhance miR-182 expression in PC3 cells. Finally, it was observed that mangiferin inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis in PC3 human prostate cancer cells, and this effect was correlated with downregulation of Bcl-2 and upregulation of miR-182.

Ruxolitinib induces autophagy in chronic myeloid leukemia cells

Ruxolitinib is the first agent used in myelofibrosis treatment with its potent JAK2 inhibitory effect. In this novel study, we aimed to discover the anti-leukemic effect of ruxolitinib in K-562 human chronic myeloid leukemia cell line compared to NCI-BL 2171 human healthy B lymphocyte cell line. Cytotoxic effect of ruxolitinib was determined by using WST-1 assay. IC50 values for K-562 and NCI-BL 2171 cell lines were defined as 20 and 23.6 μM at the 48th hour, respectively. Autophagic effects of ruxolitinib were detected by measuring LC3B-II protein formation. Ruxolitinib induced autophagic cell death in K-562 and NCI-BL 2171 cell lines 2.11- and 1.79-fold compared to control groups, respectively. To determine the autophagy-related gene expression changes, total RNA was isolated from K-562 and NCI-BL 2171 cells treated with ruxolitinib and untreated cells as control group. Reverse transcription procedure was performed for cDNA synthesis, and gene expressions were shown by RT-qPCR. Ruxolitinib treatment caused a notable decrease in expression of AKT, mTOR, and STAT autophagy inhibitor genes in K-562 cells, contrariwise control cell line. Ruxolitinib is a promising agent in chronic myeloid leukemia treatment by blocking JAK/STAT pathway known as downstream of BCR-ABL and triggering autophagy. This is the first study that reveals the relationship between ruxolitinib and autophagy induction.

Augmentation of autophagy by atorvastatin via Akt/mTOR pathway in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Autophagy is activated in hypertension-induced cardiac hypertrophy. However, the mechanisms and significance of an activated autophagy are not clear. This study was designed to determine the role of atorvastatin (ATO) in cardiac autophagy and associated benefits on cardiac remodeling and left ventricular function in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). Twenty-eight male SHRs at 8 weeks of age were randomized to treatment with vehicle (saline solution; SHR+V) or ATO (SHR+ATO; 50 mg kg(-1) per day) for 6 or 12 months. Age-matched male Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats were used as normotensive controls. Cardiac magnetic resonance was used to evaluate cardiac function and structure. Compared with WKY rats, SHRs showed significant left ventricle (LV) dysfunction, remodeling and increases in cardiomyocyte size, which were all attenuated by 6 and 12 months of ATO treatment. Compared with WKY rats, autophagy was activated in the hearts of SHRs and this effect was amplified by chronic ATO treatment, particularly following 12 months of treatment. Protein expression levels of microtubule-associated protein-1 light chain 3-II and beclin-1, the biomarkers of an activated cardiac autophagy, were significantly elevated in ATO-treated versus vehicle-treated SHRs and control WKY rats. Cardiac Akt and phosphorylated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) expression were also increased in the hearts of SHR versus WKY rats, and this effect was attenuated by ATO treatment. These findings suggest that ATO-mediated improvements in LV function and structure in SHRs may be, in part, through its regulation of cardiac autophagy via the Akt/mTOR pathway.

[Effect of Chemical Prevention Drugs-based MicroRNAs and Their Target Genes on Tumor Inhibition]

Chemopreventive drugs including natural chemopreventive drugs and synthetic chemopreventive drugs, it not only can prevent cancer, can also play a role in tumor treatment. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) is a kind of short chains of non-coding RNA, regulating the expression of many genes through the way of degradation of mRNA or inhibitting mRNA translation. In recent years, more and more studies have shown that chemopreventive drugs through influence the expression of miRNAs and their target genes play a role in the prevention and treatment in a variety of tumors, and chemopreventive drugs on the experimental study of miRNAs and their target genes in tumor have demonstrated a good safety and efficacy. Effect on chemopreventive drugs-based microRNAs and their target genes into cancer cells will be expected as a new starting point for cancer research. The thesis expounds and analyzes between the natural chemopreventive drugs and synthetic chemopreventive drugs and miRNAs and their target genes in tumor research progress.

Therapeutic targeting of autophagy: potential and concerns in treating cardiovascular disease

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved process by which long-lived proteins and organelles are sequestered by autophagosomes and subsequently degraded by lysosomes for recycling. Autophagy is important for maintaining cardiac homeostasis and is a survival mechanism that is upregulated during stress or starvation. Accumulating evidence suggests that dysregulated or reduced autophagy is associated with heart failure and aging. Thus, modulating autophagy represents an attractive future therapeutic target for treating cardiovascular disease. Activation of autophagy is generally considered to be cardioprotective, whereas excessive autophagy can lead to cell death and cardiac atrophy. It is important to understand how autophagy is regulated to identify ideal therapeutic targets for treating disease. Here, we discuss the key proteins in the core autophagy machinery and describe upstream regulators that respond to extracellular and intracellular signals to tightly coordinate autophagic activity. We review various genetic and pharmacological studies that demonstrate the important role of autophagy in the heart and consider the advantages and limitations of approaches that modulate autophagy.

A genetic variant of MDM4 influences regulation by multiple microRNAs in prostate cancer

The oncogene MDM4, also known as MDMX or HDMX, contributes to cancer susceptibility and progression through its capacity to negatively regulate a range of genes with tumour-suppressive functions. As part of a recent genome-wide association study it was determined that the A-allele of the rs4245739 SNP (A>C), located in the 3'-UTR of MDM4, is associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer. Computational predictions revealed that the rs4245739 SNP is located within a predicted binding site for three microRNAs (miRNAs): miR-191-5p, miR-887 and miR-3669. Herein, we show using reporter gene assays and endogenous MDM4 expression analyses that miR-191-5p and miR-887 have a specific affinity for the rs4245739 SNP C-allele in prostate cancer. These miRNAs do not affect MDM4 mRNA levels, rather they inhibit its translation in C-allele-containing PC3 cells but not in LNCaP cells homozygous for the A-allele. By analysing gene expression datasets from patient cohorts, we found that MDM4 is associated with metastasis and prostate cancer progression and that targeting this gene with miR-191-5p or miR-887 decreases in PC3 cell viability. This study is the first, to our knowledge, to demonstrate regulation of the MDM4 rs4245739 SNP C-allele by two miRNAs in prostate cancer, and thereby to identify a mechanism by which the MDM4 rs4245739 SNP A-allele may be associated with an increased risk for prostate cancer.

Nucleofection of rat pheochromocytoma PC-12 cells with human mutated beta-amyloid precursor protein gene (APP-sw) leads to reduced viability, autophagy-like process, and increased expression and secretion of beta amyloid

Pheochromocytoma PC-12 cells are immune to physiological stimuli directed to evoke programmed cell death. Besides, metabolic inhibitors are incapable of sensitizing PC-12 cells to extrinsic or intrinsic apoptosis unless they are used in toxic concentrations. Surprisingly, these cells become receptive to cell deletion after human APP-sw gene expression. We observed reduced cell viability in GFP vector + APP-sw-nucleofected cells (drop by 36%) but not in GFP vector - or GFP vector + APP-wt-nucleofected cells. Lower viability was accompanied by higher expression of Aβ 1-16 and elevated secretion of Aβ 1-40 (in average 53.58 pg/mL). At the ultrastructural level autophagy-like process was demonstrated to occur in APP-sw-nucleofected cells with numerous autophagosomes and multivesicular bodies but without autolysosomes. Human APP-sw gene is harmful to PC-12 cells and cells are additionally driven to incomplete autophagy-like process. When stimulated by TRAIL or nystatin, CLU protein expression accompanies early phase of autophagy.

Calcium homeostasis and ER stress in control of autophagy in cancer cells

Autophagy is a basic catabolic process, serving as an internal engine during responses to various cellular stresses. As regards cancer, autophagy may play a tumor suppressive role by preserving cellular integrity during tumor development and by possible contribution to cell death. However, autophagy may also exert oncogenic effects by promoting tumor cell survival and preventing cell death, for example, upon anticancer treatment. The major factors influencing autophagy are Ca²⁺ homeostasis perturbation and starvation. Several Ca²⁺ channels like voltage-gated T- and L-type channels, IP3 receptors, or CRAC are involved in autophagy regulation. Glucose transporters, mainly from GLUT family, which are often upregulated in cancer, are also prominent targets for autophagy induction. Signals from both Ca²⁺ perturbations and glucose transport blockage might be integrated at UPR and ER stress activation. Molecular pathways such as IRE 1-JNK-Bcl-2, PERK-eIF2α-ATF4, or ATF6-XBP 1-ATG are related to autophagy induced through ER stress. Moreover ER molecular chaperones such as GRP78/BiP and transcription factors like CHOP participate in regulation of ER stress-mediated autophagy. Autophagy modulation might be promising in anticancer therapies; however, it is a context-dependent matter whether inhibition or activation of autophagy leads to tumor cell death.