1
|
de Winne C, Pascual FL, Lopez-Vicchi F, Etcheverry-Boneo L, Mendez-Garcia LF, Ornstein AM, Lacau-Mengido IM, Sorianello E, Becu-Villalobos D. Neuroendocrine control of brown adipocyte function by prolactin and growth hormone. J Neuroendocrinol 2024; 36:e13248. [PMID: 36932836 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Growth hormone (GH) is fundamental for growth and glucose homeostasis, and prolactin for optimal pregnancy and lactation outcome, but additionally, both hormones have multiple functions that include a strong impact on energetic metabolism. In this respect, prolactin and GH receptors have been found in brown, and white adipocytes, as well as in hypothalamic centers regulating thermogenesis. This review describes the neuroendocrine control of the function and plasticity of brown and beige adipocytes, with a special focus on prolactin and GH actions. Most evidence points to a negative association between high prolactin levels and the thermogenic capacity of BAT, except in early development. During lactation and pregnancy, prolactin may be a contributing factor that limits unneeded thermogenesis, downregulating BAT UCP1. Furthermore, animal models of high serum prolactin have low BAT UCP1 levels and whitening of the tissue, while lack of Prlr induces beiging in WAT depots. These actions may involve hypothalamic nuclei, particularly the DMN, POA and ARN, brain centers that participate in thermogenesis. Studies on GH regulation of BAT function present some controversies. Most mouse models with GH excess or deficiency point to an inhibitory role of GH on BAT function. Even so, a stimulatory role of GH on WAT beiging has also been described, in accordance with whole-genome microarrays that demonstrate divergent response signatures of BAT and WAT genes to the loss of GH signaling. Understanding the physiology of BAT and WAT beiging may contribute to the ongoing efforts to curtail obesity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catalina de Winne
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Florencia L Pascual
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Felicitas Lopez-Vicchi
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Luz Etcheverry-Boneo
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Luis F Mendez-Garcia
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana Maria Ornstein
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Isabel Maria Lacau-Mengido
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Eleonora Sorianello
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Damasia Becu-Villalobos
- Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental (IBYME), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Henning Y, Adam K, Gerhardt P, Begall S. Hypoxic and hypercapnic burrow conditions lead to downregulation of free triiodothyronine and hematocrit in Ansell's mole-rats (Fukomys anselli). J Comp Physiol B 2024; 194:33-40. [PMID: 38059996 PMCID: PMC10940439 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-023-01526-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
African mole-rats live in self-dug burrow systems under hypoxic and hypercapnic conditions. Adaptations to hypoxia include suppression of resting metabolic rate (RMR) and core body temperature (Tb). Because the thyroid hormones (THs) thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are positive regulators of RMR and Tb, we hypothesized that serum TH concentrations would also be downregulated under hypoxic conditions. To test this hypothesis, we kept Ansell's mole-rats (Fukomys anselli) in terraria filled with soil in which they were allowed to construct underground burrows to achieve chronic intermittent hypoxia and hypercapnia. The animals stayed in these hypoxic and hypercapnic burrows voluntarily, although given the choice to stay aboveground. We collected blood samples before and after treatment to measure serum T4 and T3 concentrations as well as hematological parameters. The free fraction of the transcriptionally-active T3 was significantly decreased after treatment, indicating that cellular TH signaling was downregulated via peripheral mechanisms, consistent with the assumption that aerobic metabolism is downregulated under hypoxic conditions. Furthermore, we found that hematocrit and hemoglobin concentrations were also downregulated after treatment, suggesting that oxygen demand decreases under hypoxia, presumably due to the metabolic shift towards anaerobic metabolism. Taken together, we have identified a potential upstream regulator of physiological adaptations to hypoxia in these highly hypoxia-tolerant animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiyuki Henning
- Institute of Physiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147, Essen, Germany.
| | - Kamilla Adam
- Department of General Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Patricia Gerhardt
- Institute of Physiology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147, Essen, Germany
| | - Sabine Begall
- Department of General Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Brain-to-BAT - and Back?: Crosstalk between the Central Nervous System and Thermogenic Adipose Tissue in Development and Therapy of Obesity. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12121646. [PMID: 36552107 PMCID: PMC9775239 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12121646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The body of mammals harbors two distinct types of adipose tissue: while cells within the white adipose tissue (WAT) store surplus energy as lipids, brown adipose tissue (BAT) is nowadays recognized as the main tissue for transforming chemical energy into heat. This process, referred to as 'non-shivering thermogenesis', is facilitated by the uncoupling of the electron transport across mitochondrial membranes from ATP production. BAT-dependent thermogenesis acts as a safeguarding mechanism under reduced ambient temperature but also plays a critical role in metabolic and energy homeostasis in health and disease. In this review, we summarize the evolutionary structure, function and regulation of the BAT organ under neuronal and hormonal control and discuss its mutual interaction with the central nervous system. We conclude by conceptualizing how better understanding the multifaceted communicative links between the brain and BAT opens avenues for novel therapeutic approaches to treat obesity and related metabolic disorders.
Collapse
|
4
|
Yan Y, Zhang H, Kang M, Lan L, Wang Z, Lin Y. Experimental study of the negative effects of raised bedroom temperature and reduced ventilation on the sleep quality of elderly subjects. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13159. [PMID: 36437666 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of air temperature and ventilation on the sleep quality of elderly subjects and elucidated the mechanisms involved. Sixteen subjects aged over 65 years old were exposed to four conditions in a 2 × 2 design: air temperatures of 27°C and 30°C (with a ceiling fan in operation at 30°C) and two ventilation conditions (with and without mechanical ventilation) in experimental bedrooms. Their electroencephalogram, electrooculogram, chin electromyogram, electrocardiogram, respiration, oxygen saturation, and wrist skin temperature were measured continuously during sleep. Saliva samples were collected, and blood pressure was measured both before and after sleep. The results showed that at the temperature of 30°C, the total sleep time, sleep efficiency, and duration of REM sleep of the elderly decreased by 26.3 min, 5.5%, and 5.3 min, respectively, and time awake increased by 27.0 min, in comparison with 27°C, indicating that the sleep quality of the elderly is very vulnerable to heat exposure. Even a small heat load led to an overactive sympathetic nervous system and increased wrist skin temperature, which reduced sleep quality. Improving the ventilation increased the duration of deep sleep and REM sleep by 10.3 min and 3.7 min, respectively. Higher pollutant concentrations affected the respiration and autonomous nervous systems to reduce sleep quality. The benefits of improved thermal environment and ventilation on sleep quality were found to be additive. Good ventilation and the avoidance of raised temperatures in the bedroom are thus both important for the sleep quality of the elderly.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Yan
- Department of Architecture, School of Design, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Haodong Zhang
- Department of Architecture, School of Design, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengyuan Kang
- Department of Architecture, School of Design, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Li Lan
- Department of Architecture, School of Design, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhentao Wang
- School of medicine affiliated Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanbin Lin
- School of medicine affiliated Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Cerri M, Amici R. Thermoregulation and Sleep: Functional Interaction and Central Nervous Control. Compr Physiol 2021; 11:1591-1604. [PMID: 33792906 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c140012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Each of the wake-sleep states is characterized by specific changes in autonomic activity and bodily functions. The goal of such changes is not always clear. During non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, the autonomic outflow and the activity of the endocrine system, the respiratory system, the cardiovascular system, and the thermoregulatory system seem to be directed at increasing energy saving. During rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, the goal of the specific autonomic and regulatory changes is unclear, since a large instability of autonomic activity and cardiorespiratory function is observed in concomitance with thermoregulatory changes, which are apparently non-functional to thermal homeostasis. Reciprocally, the activation of thermoregulatory responses under thermal challenges interferes with sleep occurrence. Such a double-edged and reciprocal interaction between sleep and thermoregulation may be favored by the fact that the central network controlling sleep overlaps in several parts with the central network controlling thermoregulation. The understanding of the central mechanism behind the interaction between sleep and thermoregulation may help to understand the functionality of thermoregulatory sleep-related changes and, ultimately, the function(s) of sleep. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:1591-1604, 2021.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Cerri
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences - Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Roberto Amici
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences - Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Soca R. Thermo-parasomnia. Prediction of a possible sleep disorder or entity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 12:61-63. [PMID: 31105898 PMCID: PMC6508938 DOI: 10.5935/1984-0063.20190054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Parasomnias are a group of sleep disorders that are characterized by the presence
of undesirable behavioral, experiential, or autonomic nervous system events
during sleep initiation, within sleep, or during arousals from any stage of
non-rapid eye movement (NREM) or rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. During
wakefulness and NREM sleep, the hypothalamus plays a central role in
thermoregulation. REM sleep has a very distinct thermoregulatory response that
is characterized by an inhibition of hypothalamic control over body temperature,
with resulting poikilothermia. The role of the thermoregulatory features of REM
sleep is currently unknown. Drawing conclusions from other parasomnias one can
assume that a disorder could exist in which the thermoregulatory features of REM
sleep are impaired. The existence of this condition may have eluded current
research because most of the research on thermoregulation has been completed
using animal models or healthy volunteers. If this disorder were to exist, it
could be associated with metabolic disorders, or with neurodegenerative
conditions, and perhaps it could be an early biomarker for
alpha-synucleinopathies in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder. New and
evolving wearable technologies offer the promise of facilitating the monitoring
of core body temperature and the testing of this hypothesized thermoregulatory
autonomic disorder and its clinical correlates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rodolfo Soca
- HealthEast Care System, Sleep Medicine - St Paul - MN - United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Cakir I, Diaz-Martinez M, Lining Pan P, Welch EB, Patel S, Ghamari-Langroudi M. Leptin Receptor Signaling in Sim1-Expressing Neurons Regulates Body Temperature and Adaptive Thermogenesis. Endocrinology 2019; 160:863-879. [PMID: 30802281 PMCID: PMC6435012 DOI: 10.1210/en.2019-00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Leptin signals to regulate food intake and energy expenditure under conditions of normative energy homeostasis. The central expression and function of leptin receptor B (LepRb) have been extensively studied during the past two decades; however, the mechanisms by which LepRb signaling dysregulation contributes to the pathophysiology of obesity remains unclear. The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) plays a crucial role in regulating energy balance as well as the neuroendocrine axes. The role of LepRb expression in the PVN in regard to the regulation of physiological function of leptin has been controversial. The single-minded homolog 1 gene (Sim1) is densely expressed in the PVN and in parts of the amygdala, making Sim1-Cre mice a useful model for examining molecular mechanisms regulating PVN function. In this study, we characterized the physiological role of LepRb in Sim1-expressing neurons using LepRb-floxed × Sim1-Cre mice. Sim1-specific LepRb-deficient mice were surprisingly hypophagic on regular chow but gained more weight upon exposure to a high-fat diet than did their control littermates. We show that Sim1-specific deletion of a single LepRb gene copy caused decreased surface and core body temperatures as well as decreased energy expenditure in ambient room temperatures in both female and male mice. Furthermore, cold-induced adaptive (nonshivering) thermogenesis is disrupted in homozygous knockout mice. A defective thermoregulatory response was associated with defective cold-induced upregulation of uncoupling protein 1 in brown adipose tissue and reduced serum T4. Our study provides novel functional evidence supporting LepRb signaling in Sim1 neurons in the regulation of body weight, core body temperature, and cold-induced adaptive thermogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isin Cakir
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Myriam Diaz-Martinez
- Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | | | - E Brian Welch
- Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Sachin Patel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Masoud Ghamari-Langroudi
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Madden CJ, Morrison SF. Central nervous system circuits that control body temperature. Neurosci Lett 2019; 696:225-232. [PMID: 30586638 PMCID: PMC6397692 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Maintenance of mammalian core body temperature within a narrow range is a fundamental homeostatic process to optimize cellular and tissue function, and to improve survival in adverse thermal environments. Body temperature is maintained during a broad range of environmental and physiological challenges by central nervous system circuits that process thermal afferent inputs from the skin and the body core to control the activity of thermoeffectors. These include thermoregulatory behaviors, cutaneous vasomotion (vasoconstriction and, in humans, active vasodilation), thermogenesis (shivering and brown adipose tissue), evaporative heat loss (salivary spreading in rodents, and human sweating). This review provides an overview of the central nervous system circuits for thermoregulatory reflex regulation of thermoeffectors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Madden
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States.
| | - Shaun F Morrison
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
c-Fos expression in the limbic thalamus following thermoregulatory and wake-sleep changes in the rat. Exp Brain Res 2019; 237:1397-1407. [PMID: 30887077 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-019-05521-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A cellular degeneration of two thalamic nuclei belonging to the "limbic thalamus", i.e., the anteroventral (AV) and mediodorsal (MD) nuclei, has been shown in patients suffering from Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI), a lethal prion disease characterized by autonomic activation and severe insomnia. To better assess the physiological role of these nuclei in autonomic and sleep regulation, c-Fos expression was measured in rats during a prolonged exposure to low ambient temperature (Ta, - 10 °C) and in the first hours of the subsequent recovery period at normal laboratory Ta (25 °C). Under this protocol, the thermoregulatory and autonomic activation led to a tonic increase in waking and to a reciprocal depression in sleep occurrence, which was more evident for REM sleep. These effects were followed by a clear REM sleep rebound and by a rebound of Delta power during non-REM sleep in the following recovery period. In the anterior thalamic nuclei, c-Fos expression was (1) larger during the activity rather than the rest period in the baseline; (2) clamped at a level in-between the normal daily variation during cold exposure; (3) not significantly affected during the recovery period in comparison to the time-matched baseline. No significant changes were observed in either the MD or the paraventricular thalamic nucleus, which is also part of the limbic thalamus. The observed changes in the activity of the anterior thalamic nuclei appear, therefore, to be more specifically related to behavioral activation than to autonomic or sleep regulation.
Collapse
|
10
|
Muta K, Matsen ME, Acharya NK, Stefanovski D, Bergman RN, Schwartz MW, Morton GJ. Glucoregulatory responses to hypothalamic preoptic area cooling. Brain Res 2019; 1710:136-145. [PMID: 30610874 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Normal glucose homeostasis depends on the capacity of pancreatic β-cells to adjust insulin secretion in response to a change of tissue insulin sensitivity. In cold environments, for example, the dramatic increase of insulin sensitivity required to ensure a sufficient supply of glucose to thermogenic tissues is offset by a proportionate reduction of insulin secretion, such that overall glucose tolerance is preserved. That these cold-induced changes of insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity are dependent on sympathetic nervous system (SNS) outflow suggests a key role for thermoregulatory neurons in the hypothalamic preoptic area (POA) in this metabolic response. As these POA neurons are themselves sensitive to changes in local hypothalamic temperature, we hypothesized that direct cooling of the POA would elicit the same glucoregulatory responses that we observed during cold exposure. To test this hypothesis, we used a thermode to cool the POA area, and found that as predicted, short-term (8-h) intense POA cooling reduced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS), yet glucose tolerance remained unchanged due to an increase of insulin sensitivity. Longer-term (24-h), more moderate POA cooling, however, failed to inhibit GSIS and improved glucose tolerance, an effect associated with hyperthermia and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, indicative of a stress response. Taken together, these findings suggest that POA cooling is sufficient to recapitulate key glucoregulatory responses to cold exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenjiro Muta
- University of Washington Medicine Diabetes Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Miles E Matsen
- University of Washington Medicine Diabetes Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Nikhil K Acharya
- University of Washington Medicine Diabetes Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Darko Stefanovski
- New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Richard N Bergman
- Diabetes and Obesity Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Michael W Schwartz
- University of Washington Medicine Diabetes Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Gregory J Morton
- University of Washington Medicine Diabetes Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Mohammed M, Madden CJ, Burchiel KJ, Morrison SF. Preoptic area cooling increases the sympathetic outflow to brown adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2018; 315:R609-R618. [PMID: 29897823 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00113.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Modest cold exposures are likely to activate autonomic thermogenic mechanisms due to activation of cutaneous thermal afferents, whereas central thermosensitive neurons set the background tone on which this afferent input is effective. In addition, more prolonged or severe cold exposures that overwhelm cold defense mechanisms would directly activate thermosensitive neurons within the central nervous system. Here, we examined the involvement of the canonical brown adipose tissue (BAT) sympathoexcitatory efferent pathway in the response to direct local cooling of the preoptic area (POA) in urethane-chloralose-anesthetized rats. With skin temperature and core body temperature maintained between 36 and 39°C, cooling POA temperature by ~1-4°C evoked increases in BAT sympathetic nerve activity (SNA), BAT temperature, expired CO2, and heart rate. POA cooling-evoked responses were inhibited by nanoinjections of ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists or the GABAA receptor agonist muscimol into the median POA or by nanoinjections of ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists into the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (bilaterally) or into the raphe pallidus nucleus. These results demonstrate that direct cooling of the POA can increase BAT SNA and thermogenesis via the canonical BAT sympathoexcitatory efferent pathway, even in the face of warm thermal input from the skin and body core.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mazher Mohammed
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University , Portland, Oregon
| | - Christopher J Madden
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University , Portland, Oregon
| | - Kim J Burchiel
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University , Portland, Oregon
| | - Shaun F Morrison
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University , Portland, Oregon
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Yu S, Cheng H, François M, Qualls-Creekmore E, Huesing C, He Y, Jiang Y, Gao H, Xu Y, Zsombok A, Derbenev AV, Nillni EA, Burk DH, Morrison CD, Berthoud HR, Münzberg H. Preoptic leptin signaling modulates energy balance independent of body temperature regulation. eLife 2018; 7:33505. [PMID: 29761783 PMCID: PMC5953538 DOI: 10.7554/elife.33505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The adipokine leptin acts on the brain to regulate energy balance but specific functions in many brain areas remain poorly understood. Among these, the preoptic area (POA) is well known to regulate core body temperature by controlling brown fat thermogenesis, and we have previously shown that glutamatergic, long-form leptin receptor (Lepr)-expressing neurons in the POA are stimulated by warm ambient temperature and suppress energy expenditure and food intake. Here we further investigate the role of POA leptin signaling in body weight regulation and its relationship to body temperature regulation in mice. We show that POA Lepr signaling modulates energy expenditure in response to internal energy state, and thus contributes to body weight homeostasis. However, POA leptin signaling is not involved in ambient temperature-dependent metabolic adaptations. Our study reveals a novel cell population through which leptin regulates body weight.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sangho Yu
- Neurobiology of Nutrition and Metabolism Department, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, United States
| | - Helia Cheng
- Neurobiology of Nutrition and Metabolism Department, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, United States
| | - Marie François
- Neurobiology of Nutrition and Metabolism Department, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, United States
| | - Emily Qualls-Creekmore
- Neurobiology of Nutrition and Metabolism Department, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, United States
| | - Clara Huesing
- Neurobiology of Nutrition and Metabolism Department, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, United States
| | - Yanlin He
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Yanyan Jiang
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, United States
| | - Hong Gao
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, United States
| | - Yong Xu
- Children's Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States
| | - Andrea Zsombok
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, United States
| | - Andrei V Derbenev
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, United States
| | - Eduardo A Nillni
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, United States.,The Warren Alpert Medical School, Department of Medicine, Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, United States
| | - David H Burk
- Neurobiology of Nutrition and Metabolism Department, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, United States
| | - Christopher D Morrison
- Neurobiology of Nutrition and Metabolism Department, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, United States
| | - Hans-Rudolf Berthoud
- Neurobiology of Nutrition and Metabolism Department, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, United States
| | - Heike Münzberg
- Neurobiology of Nutrition and Metabolism Department, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University System, Baton Rouge, United States
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Iwen KA, Oelkrug R, Brabant G. Effects of thyroid hormones on thermogenesis and energy partitioning. J Mol Endocrinol 2018; 60:R157-R170. [PMID: 29434028 DOI: 10.1530/jme-17-0319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (TH) are of central importance for thermogenesis, energy homeostasis and metabolism. Here, we will discuss these aspects by focussing on the physiological aspects of TH-dependent regulation in response to cold exposure and fasting, which will be compared to alterations in primary hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. In particular, we will summarise current knowledge on regional thyroid hormone status in the central nervous system (CNS) and in peripheral cells. In contrast to hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, where parallel changes are observed, local alterations in the CNS differ to peripheral compartments when induced by cold exposure or fasting. Cold exposure is associated with low hypothalamic TH concentrations but increased TH levels in the periphery. Fasting results in a reversed TH pattern. Primary hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism disrupt these fine-tuned adaptive mechanisms and both, the hypothalamus and the periphery, will have the same TH status. These important mechanisms need to be considered when discussing thyroid hormone replacement and other therapeutical interventions to modulate TH status.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Alexander Iwen
- Medizinische Klinik IExperimentelle und Klinische Endokrinologie, Universität zu Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- Department of Molecular EndocrinologyCenter of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, Universität zu Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Rebecca Oelkrug
- Department of Molecular EndocrinologyCenter of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism, Universität zu Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Georg Brabant
- Medizinische Klinik IExperimentelle und Klinische Endokrinologie, Universität zu Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- Department of EndocrinologyThe Christie Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ishiwata T, Greenwood BN. Changes in thermoregulation and monoamine release in freely moving rats during cold exposure and inhibition of the ventromedial, dorsomedial, or posterior hypothalamus. J Comp Physiol B 2017; 188:541-551. [DOI: 10.1007/s00360-017-1130-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
15
|
Cerri M, Luppi M, Tupone D, Zamboni G, Amici R. REM Sleep and Endothermy: Potential Sites and Mechanism of a Reciprocal Interference. Front Physiol 2017; 8:624. [PMID: 28883799 PMCID: PMC5573803 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous data show a reciprocal interaction between REM sleep and thermoregulation. During REM sleep, the function of thermoregulation appears to be impaired; from the other hand, the tonic activation of thermogenesis, such as during cold exposure, suppresses REM sleep occurrence. Recently, both the central neural network controlling REM sleep and the central neural network controlling thermoregulation have been progressively unraveled. Thermoregulation was shown to be controlled by a central “core” circuit, responsible for the maintenance of body temperature, modulated by a set of accessory areas. REM sleep was suggested to be controlled by a group of hypothalamic neurons overlooking at the REM sleep generating circuits within the brainstem. The two networks overlap in a few areas, and in this review, we will suggest that in such overlap may reside the explanation of the reciprocal interaction between REM sleep and thermoregulation. Considering the peculiar modulation of thermoregulation by REM sleep the result of their coincidental evolution, REM sleep may therefore be seen as a period of transient heterothermy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Cerri
- Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
| | - Marco Luppi
- Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
| | - Domenico Tupone
- Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
| | - Giovanni Zamboni
- Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
| | - Roberto Amici
- Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of BolognaBologna, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Glutamatergic Preoptic Area Neurons That Express Leptin Receptors Drive Temperature-Dependent Body Weight Homeostasis. J Neurosci 2017; 36:5034-46. [PMID: 27147656 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0213-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The preoptic area (POA) regulates body temperature, but is not considered a site for body weight control. A subpopulation of POA neurons express leptin receptors (LepRb(POA) neurons) and modulate reproductive function. However, LepRb(POA) neurons project to sympathetic premotor neurons that control brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis, suggesting an additional role in energy homeostasis and body weight regulation. We determined the role of LepRb(POA) neurons in energy homeostasis using cre-dependent viral vectors to selectively activate these neurons and analyzed functional outcomes in mice. We show that LepRb(POA) neurons mediate homeostatic adaptations to ambient temperature changes, and their pharmacogenetic activation drives robust suppression of energy expenditure and food intake, which lowers body temperature and body weight. Surprisingly, our data show that hypothermia-inducing LepRb(POA) neurons are glutamatergic, while GABAergic POA neurons, originally thought to mediate warm-induced inhibition of sympathetic premotor neurons, have no effect on energy expenditure. Our data suggest a new view into the neurochemical and functional properties of BAT-related POA circuits and highlight their additional role in modulating food intake and body weight. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Brown adipose tissue (BAT)-induced thermogenesis is a promising therapeutic target to treat obesity and metabolic diseases. The preoptic area (POA) controls body temperature by modulating BAT activity, but its role in body weight homeostasis has not been addressed. LepRb(POA) neurons are BAT-related neurons and we show that they are sufficient to inhibit energy expenditure. We further show that LepRb(POA) neurons modulate food intake and body weight, which is mediated by temperature-dependent homeostatic responses. We further found that LepRb(POA) neurons are stimulatory glutamatergic neurons, contrary to prevalent models, providing a new view on thermoregulatory neural circuits. In summary, our study significantly expands our current understanding of central circuits and mechanisms that modulate energy homeostasis.
Collapse
|
17
|
Luppi M, Al-Jahmany AA, Del Vecchio F, Cerri M, Di Cristoforo A, Hitrec T, Martelli D, Perez E, Zamboni G, Amici R. Wake-sleep and cardiovascular regulatory changes in rats made obese by a high-fat diet. Behav Brain Res 2017; 320:347-355. [PMID: 28011172 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Obesity is known to be associated with alterations in wake-sleep (WS) architecture and cardiovascular parameters. This study was aimed at assessing the possible influence of diet-induced obesity (DIO) on sleep homeostasis and on the WS state-dependent levels of arterial pressure (AP) and heart rate in the rat. Two groups of age-matched Sprague-Dawley rats were fed either a high-fat hypercaloric diet, leading to DIO, or a normocaloric standard diet (lean controls) for 8 weeks. While under general anesthesia, animals were implanted with instrumentation for the recording of electroencephalogram, electromyogram, arterial pressure, and deep brain temperature. The experimental protocol consisted of 48h of baseline, 12h of gentle handling, enhancing wake and depressing sleep, and 36-h post-handling recovery. Compared to lean controls, DIO rats showed: i) the same amount of rapid-eye movement (REM) and non-REM (NREM) sleep in the rest period, although the latter was characterized by more fragmented episodes; ii) an increase in both REM sleep and NREM sleep in the activity period; iii) a comparable post-handling sleep homeostatic response, in terms of either the degree of Delta power increase during NREM sleep or the quantitative compensation of the REM sleep loss at the end of the 36-h recovery period; iv) significantly higher levels of AP, irrespectively of the different WS states and of the changes in their intensity throughout the experimental protocol. Overall, these changes may be the reflection of a modification in the activity of the hypothalamic areas where WS, autonomic, and metabolic regulations are known to interact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Luppi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Abed A Al-Jahmany
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Flavia Del Vecchio
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Matteo Cerri
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Alessia Di Cristoforo
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Timna Hitrec
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Davide Martelli
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy; Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3052, Australia.
| | - Emanuele Perez
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Giovanni Zamboni
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Roberto Amici
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences-Physiology, Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta San Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Maller JJ, George SS, Viswanathan RP, Fitzgerald PB, Junor P. Using thermographic cameras to investigate eye temperature and clinical severity in depression. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2016; 21:26001. [PMID: 26836210 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.21.2.026001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies suggest that altered corneal temperature may be a feature of schizophrenia, but the association between major depressive disorder (MDD) and corneal temperature has yet to be assessed. The aim of this study is to investigate whether eye temperature is different among MDD patients than among healthy individuals. We used a thermographic camera to measure and compare the temperature profile across the corneas of 16 patients with MDD and 16 age- and sex-matched healthy subjects. We found that the average corneal temperature between the two groups did not differ statistically, although clinical severity correlated positively with right corneal temperature. Corneal temperature may be an indicator of clinical severity in psychiatric disorders, including depression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jerome J Maller
- The Alfred and Monash University Central Clinical School, Monash Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Shefin Sam George
- LaTrobe University, School of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, Department of Electronic Engineering, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Paul B Fitzgerald
- The Alfred and Monash University Central Clinical School, Monash Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Paul Junor
- LaTrobe University, School of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, Department of Electronic Engineering, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Labbé SM, Caron A, Lanfray D, Monge-Rofarello B, Bartness TJ, Richard D. Hypothalamic control of brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9:150. [PMID: 26578907 PMCID: PMC4630288 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
It has long been known, in large part from animal studies, that the control of brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis is insured by the central nervous system (CNS), which integrates several stimuli in order to control BAT activation through the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). SNS-mediated BAT activity is governed by diverse neurons found in brain structures involved in homeostatic regulations and whose activity is modulated by various factors including oscillations of energy fluxes. The characterization of these neurons has always represented a challenging issue. The available literature suggests that the neuronal circuits controlling BAT thermogenesis are largely part of an autonomic circuitry involving the hypothalamus, brainstem and the SNS efferent neurons. In the present review, we recapitulate the latest progresses in regards to the hypothalamic regulation of BAT metabolism. We briefly addressed the role of the thermoregulatory pathway and its interactions with the energy balance systems in the control of thermogenesis. We also reviewed the involvement of the brain melanocortin and endocannabinoid systems as well as the emerging role of steroidogenic factor 1 (SF1) neurons in BAT thermogenesis. Finally, we examined the link existing between these systems and the homeostatic factors that modulate their activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastien M Labbé
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Department of Medicine, Université Laval Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Alexandre Caron
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Department of Medicine, Université Laval Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Damien Lanfray
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Department of Medicine, Université Laval Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Boris Monge-Rofarello
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Department of Medicine, Université Laval Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Timothy J Bartness
- Department of Biology, Center for Obesity Reversal (COR), Georgia State University Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Denis Richard
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Department of Medicine, Université Laval Québec, QC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
McKinley MJ, Yao ST, Uschakov A, McAllen RM, Rundgren M, Martelli D. The median preoptic nucleus: front and centre for the regulation of body fluid, sodium, temperature, sleep and cardiovascular homeostasis. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2015; 214:8-32. [PMID: 25753944 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Revised: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Located in the midline anterior wall of the third cerebral ventricle (i.e. the lamina terminalis), the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO) receives a unique set of afferent neural inputs from fore-, mid- and hindbrain. These afferent connections enable it to receive neural signals related to several important aspects of homeostasis. Included in these afferent projections are (i) neural inputs from two adjacent circumventricular organs, the subfornical organ and organum vasculosum laminae terminalis, that respond to hypertonicity, circulating angiotensin II or other humoural factors, (ii) signals from cutaneous warm and cold receptors that are relayed to MnPO, respectively, via different subnuclei in the lateral parabrachial nucleus and (iii) input from the medulla associated with baroreceptor and vagal afferents. These afferent signals reach appropriate neurones within the MnPO that enable relevant neural outputs, both excitatory and inhibitory, to be activated or inhibited. The efferent neural pathways that proceed from the MnPO terminate on (i) neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamic supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei to regulate vasopressin release, while polysynaptic pathways from MnPO to cortical sites may drive thirst and water intake, (ii) thermoregulatory pathways to the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus and medullary raphé to regulate shivering, brown adipose tissue and skin vasoconstriction, (iii) parvocellular neurones in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus that drive autonomic pathways influencing cardiovascular function. As well, (iv) other efferent pathways from the MnPO to sites in the ventrolateral pre-optic nucleus, perifornical region of the lateral hypothalamic area and midbrain influence sleep mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. J. McKinley
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
- Department of Physiology; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
| | - S. T. Yao
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
| | - A. Uschakov
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
| | - R. M. McAllen
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
| | - M. Rundgren
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology; Karolinska Institutet; Stockholm Sweden
| | - D. Martelli
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Vic. Australia
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Science; University of Bologna; Bologna Italy
| |
Collapse
|