Searching for novel Cdk5 substrates in brain by comparative phosphoproteomics of wild type and Cdk5-/- mice

Manipulating mitochondrial reactive oxygen species alters survival in unexpected ways in a Drosophila Cdk5 model of neurodegeneration

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are associated with aging and neurodegeneration, but the significance of this association remains obscure. Here, using a Drosophila Cdk5 model of age-related neurodegeneration, we probe this relationship in the pathologically relevant tissue, the brain, by quantifying three specific mitochondrial ROS and manipulating these redox species pharmacologically. Our goal is to ask whether pathology-associated changes in redox state are detrimental for survival, whether they may be beneficial responses to pathology, or whether they are covariates of pathology that do not alter viability. We find, surprisingly, that increasing mitochondrial H2O2 correlates with improved survival. We also find evidence that drugs that alter the mitochondrial glutathione redox potential modulate survival primarily through the compensatory effects they induce rather than through their direct effects on the final mitochondrial glutathione redox potential. We also find that the response to treatment with a redox-altering drug varies depending on the age and genotype of the individual receiving the drug as well as the duration of the treatment. These data have important implications for the design and interpretation of studies investigating the effect of redox state on health and disease as well as on efforts to modify the redox state to achieve therapeutic goals.

Protocols for Characterization of Cdk5 Kinase Activity

Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) are generally known to be involved in controlling the cell cycle, but Cdk5 is a unique member of this protein family for being most active in post-mitotic neurons. Cdk5 is developmentally important in regulating neuronal migration, neurite outgrowth, and axon guidance. Cdk5 is enriched in synaptic membranes and is known to modulate synaptic activity. Postnatally, Cdk5 can also affect neuronal processes such as dopaminergic signaling and pain sensitivity. Dysregulated Cdk5, in contrast, has been linked to neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Despite primarily being implicated in neuronal development and activity, Cdk5 has lately been linked to non-neuronal functions including cancer cell growth, immune responses, and diabetes. Since Cdk5 activity is tightly regulated, a method for measuring its kinase activity is needed to fully understand the precise role of Cdk5 in developmental and disease processes. This article includes methods for detecting Cdk5 kinase activity in cultured cells or tissues, identifying new substrates, and screening for new kinase inhibitors. Furthermore, since Cdk5 shares homology and substrate specificity with Cdk1 and Cdk2, the Cdk5 kinase assay can be used, with modification, to measure the activity of other Cdks as well. © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA. Basic Protocol 1: Measuring Cdk5 activity from protein lysates Support Protocol 1: Immunoprecipitation of Cdk5 using Dynabeads Alternate Protocol: Non-radioactive protocols to measure Cdk5 kinase activity Support Protocol 2: Western blot analysis for the detection of Cdk5, p35, and p39 Support Protocol 3: Immunodetection analysis for Cdk5, p35, and p39 Support Protocol 4: Genetically engineered mice (+ and - controls) Basic Protocol 2: Identifying new Cdk5 substrates and kinase inhibitors.

Novel phospho-switch function of delta-catenin in dendrite development

In neurons, dendrites form the major sites of information receipt and integration. It is thus vital that, during development, the dendritic arbor is adequately formed to enable proper neural circuit formation and function. While several known processes shape the arbor, little is known of those that govern dendrite branching versus extension. Here, we report a new mechanism instructing dendrites to branch versus extend. In it, glutamate signaling activates mGluR5 receptors to promote Ckd5-mediated phosphorylation of the C-terminal PDZ-binding motif of delta-catenin. The phosphorylation state of this motif determines delta-catenin's ability to bind either Pdlim5 or Magi1. Whereas the delta:Pdlim5 complex enhances dendrite branching at the expense of elongation, the delta:Magi1 complex instead promotes lengthening. Our data suggest that these complexes affect dendrite development by differentially regulating the small-GTPase RhoA and actin-associated protein Cortactin. We thus reveal a "phospho-switch" within delta-catenin, subject to a glutamate-mediated signaling pathway, that assists in balancing the branching versus extension of dendrites during neural development.

Farnesyl Transferase Inhibitor Lonafarnib Enhances α7nAChR Expression Through Inhibiting DNA Methylation of CHRNA7 and Increases α7nAChR Membrane Trafficking

Inhibition of Ras farnesylation in acute has been found to upregulate the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) activity. This study was carried out to investigate the effect of chronic administration for 7 days of farnesyl transferase inhibitor lonafarnib (50 mg/kg, intraperitoneally injected) to male mice on the expression and activity of α7nAChR in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells. Herein, we show that lonafarnib dose dependently enhances the amplitude of ACh-evoked inward currents (I_ACh), owning to the increased α7nAChR expression and membrane trafficking. Lonafarnib inhibited phosphorylation of c-Jun and JNK, which was related to DNA methylation. In addition, reduced DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) expression was observed in lonafarnib-treated mice, which was reversed by JNK activator. Lonafarnib-upregulated expression of α7nAChR was mimicked by DNMT inhibitor, and repressed by JNK activator. However, only inhibited DNA methylation did not affect I_ACh, and the JNK activator partially decreased the lonafarnib-upregulated I_ACh. On the other hand, lonafarnib also increased the membrane expression of α7nAChR, which was partially inhibited by JNK activator or CaMKII inhibitor, without changes in the α7nAChR phosphorylation. CaMKII inhibitor had no effect on the expression of α7nAChR. Lonafarnib-enhanced spatial memory of mice was also partially blocked by JNK activator or CaMKII inhibitor. These results suggest that Ras inhibition increases α7nAChR expression through depressed DNA methylation of CHRNA7 via Ras-c-Jun-JNK pathway, increases the membrane expression of α7nAChR resulting in part from the enhanced CaMKII pathway and total expression of this receptor, and consequently enhances the spatial memory.

Temporal Quantitative Proteomics of mGluR-induced Protein Translation and Phosphorylation in Neurons

At neuronal synapses, activation of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1/5) triggers a form of long-term depression (mGluR-LTD) that relies on new protein synthesis and the internalization of AMPA-type glutamate receptors. Dysregulation of these processes has been implicated in the development of mental disorders such as autism spectrum disorders and therefore merit a better understanding on a molecular level. Here, to study mGluR-induced signaling pathways, we integrated quantitative phosphoproteomics with the analyses of newly synthesized proteins via bio-orthogonal amino acids (azidohomoalanine) in a pulsed labeling strategy in cultured hippocampal neurons stimulated with DHPG, a specific agonist for group I mGluRs. We identified several kinases with important roles in DHPG-induced mGluR activation, which we confirmed using small molecule kinase inhibitors. Furthermore, changes in the AMPA receptor endocytosis pathway in both protein synthesis and protein phosphorylation were identified, whereby Intersectin-1 was validated as a novel player in this pathway. This study revealed several new insights into the molecular pathways downstream of group I mGluR activation in hippocampal neurons, and provides a rich resource for further analyses.

p39-associated Cdk5 activity regulates dendritic morphogenesis

Dendrites, branched structures extending from neuronal cell soma, are specialized for processing information from other neurons. The morphogenesis of dendritic structures is spatiotemporally regulated by well-orchestrated signaling cascades. Dysregulation of these processes impacts the wiring of neuronal circuit and efficacy of neurotransmission, which contribute to the pathogeneses of neurological disorders. While Cdk5 (cyclin-dependent kinase 5) plays a critical role in neuronal dendritic development, its underlying molecular control is not fully understood. In this study, we show that p39, one of the two neuronal Cdk5 activators, is a key regulator of dendritic morphogenesis. Pyramidal neurons deficient in p39 exhibit aberrant dendritic morphology characterized by shorter length and reduced arborization, which is comparable to dendrites in Cdk5-deficient neurons. RNA sequencing analysis shows that the adaptor protein, WDFY1 (WD repeat and FYVE domain-containing 1), acts downstream of Cdk5/p39 to regulate dendritic morphogenesis. While WDFY1 is elevated in p39-deficient neurons, suppressing its expression rescues the impaired dendritic arborization. Further phosphoproteomic analysis suggests that Cdk5/p39 mediates dendritic morphogenesis by modulating various downstream signaling pathways, including PI3K/Akt-, cAMP-, or small GTPase-mediated signaling transduction pathways, thereby regulating cytoskeletal organization, protein synthesis, and protein trafficking.

A Comprehensive Identification of Chicken Egg White Phosphoproteomics Based on a Novel Digestion Approach

There are plenty of phosphoproteins in chicken egg white (CEW), which are of great significance for the biological activity and function of CEW. In this study, phosphorylated proteins in CEW were identified and analyzed based on two digestion strategies (trypsin and trypsin/glutamyl endoproteinase). Besides, the enrichment strategy of immobilized metal affinity chromatography was used, and phosphopeptides were identified by nano liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. A total of 189 phosphosites mapped onto 166 phosphopeptides corresponding to 96 phosphoproteins were identified. Gene ontology analysis suggested that these phosphoproteins of CEW mainly participated in biological processes such as "cell process", "biological regulation", and "response to stimulus". Moreover, the phosphoproteins of CEW were involved in molecular functions, primarily including "binding" and "catalytic activity". On the basis of the available literature, the research was the first comprehensive identification of chicken egg white phosphoproteins. This study further enriched the identification of phosphoproteins in CEW and laid a foundation for the subsequent study of phosphoproteins.

ULK1-ATG13 and their mitotic phospho-regulation by CDK1 connect autophagy to cell cycle

Unc-51-like autophagy activating kinase 1 (ULK1)–autophagy-related 13 (ATG13) is the most upstream autophagy initiation complex that is phosphorylated by mammalian target-of-rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) to induce autophagy in asynchronous conditions. However, their phospho-regulation and functions in mitosis and cell cycle remain unknown. Here we show that ULK1-ATG13 complex is differentially regulated throughout the cell cycle, especially in mitosis, in which both ULK1 and ATG13 are highly phosphorylated by the key cell cycle machinery cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1)/cyclin B. Combining mass spectrometry and site-directed mutagenesis, we found that CDK1-induced ULK1-ATG13 phosphorylation promotes mitotic autophagy and cell cycle progression. Moreover, double knockout (DKO) of ULK1 and ATG13 could block cell cycle progression and significantly decrease cancer cell proliferation in cell line and mouse models. Our results not only bridge the mutual regulation between the core machinery of autophagy and mitosis but also illustrate the positive function of ULK1-ATG13 and their phosphorylation by CDK1 in mitotic autophagy regulation.

This study shows that the ULK1-ATG13 autophagy initiation complex is differentially regulated throughout the cell cycle, especially in mitosis, in which both ULK1 and ATG13 are highly phosphorylated by CDK1/cyclin B, promoting mitotic autophagy and cell cycle progression.

Nestin Selectively Facilitates the Phosphorylation of the Lissencephaly-Linked Protein Doublecortin (DCX) by cdk5/p35 to Regulate Growth Cone Morphology and Sema3a Sensitivity in Developing Neurons

Nestin, an intermediate filament protein widely used as a marker of neural progenitors, was recently found to be expressed transiently in developing cortical neurons in culture and in developing mouse cortex. In young cortical cultures, nestin regulates axonal growth cone morphology. In addition, nestin, which is known to bind the neuronal cdk5/p35 kinase, affects responses to axon guidance cues upstream of cdk5, specifically, to Sema3a. Changes in growth cone morphology require rearrangements of cytoskeletal networks, and changes in microtubules and actin filaments are well studied. In contrast, the roles of intermediate filament proteins in this process are poorly understood, even in cultured neurons. Here, we investigate the molecular mechanism by which nestin affects growth cone morphology and Sema3a sensitivity. We find that nestin selectively facilitates the phosphorylation of the lissencephaly-linked protein doublecortin (DCX) by cdk5/p35, but the phosphorylation of other cdk5 substrates is not affected by nestin. We uncover that this substrate selectivity is based on the ability of nestin to interact with DCX, but not with other cdk5 substrates. Nestin thus creates a selective scaffold for DCX with activated cdk5/p35. Last, we use cortical cultures derived from Dcx KO mice to show that the effects of nestin on growth cone morphology and on Sema3a sensitivity are DCX-dependent, thus suggesting a functional role for the DCX-nestin complex in neurons. We propose that nestin changes growth cone behavior by regulating the intracellular kinase signaling environment in developing neurons. The sex of animal subjects is unknown.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Nestin, an intermediate filament protein highly expressed in neural progenitors, was recently identified in developing neurons where it regulates growth cone morphology and responsiveness to the guidance cue Sema3a. Changes in growth cone morphology require rearrangements of cytoskeletal networks, but the roles of intermediate filaments in this process are poorly understood. We now report that nestin selectively facilitates phosphorylation of the lissencephaly-linked doublecortin (DCX) by cdk5/p35, but the phosphorylation of other cdk5 substrates is not affected. This substrate selectivity is based on preferential scaffolding of DCX, cdk5, and p35 by nestin. Additionally, we demonstrate a functional role for the DCX-nestin complex in neurons. We propose that nestin changes growth cone behavior by regulating intracellular kinase signaling in developing neurons.

Simvastatin Enhances Activity and Trafficking of α7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor in Hippocampal Neurons Through PKC and CaMKII Signaling Pathways

Simvastatin (SV) enhances glutamate release and synaptic plasticity in hippocampal CA1 region upon activation of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR). In this study, we examined the effects of SV on the functional activity of α7nAChR on CA1 pyramidal cells using patch-clamp recording and explored the underlying mechanisms. We found that the treatment of hippocampal slices with SV for 2 h induced a dose-dependent increase in the amplitude of ACh-evoked inward currents (I_ACh) and the level of α7nAChR protein on the cell membrane without change in the level of α7nAChR phosphorylation. These SV-induced phenotypes were suppressed by addition of farnesol (FOH) that converts farnesyl pyrophosphate, but not geranylgeraniol. Similarly, the farnesyl transferase inhibitor FTI277 was able to increase the amplitude of I_ACh and enhance the trafficking of α7nAChR. The treatment with SV enhanced phosphorylation of CaMKII and PKC. The SV-enhanced phosphorylation of CaMKII rather than PKC was blocked by FOH, Src inhibitor PP2 or NMDA receptor antagonist MK801 and mimicked by FTI. The SV-enhanced phosphorylation of PKC was sensitive to the IP3R antagonist 2-APB. The SV-increased amplitude of I_ACh was suppressed by PKC inhibitor GF109203X and Go6983, or CaMKII inhibitor KN93. The SV- and FTI-enhanced trafficking of α7nAChR was sensitive to KN93, but not GF109203X or Go6983. The PKC activator PMA increased α7nAChR activity, but had no effect on trafficking of α7nAChR. Collectively, these results indicate that acute treatment with SV enhances the activity and trafficking of α7nAChR by increasing PKC phosphorylation and reducing farnesyl-pyrophosphate to trigger NMDA receptor-mediated CaMKII activation.

The role of Cdk5-mediated Drp1 phosphorylation in Aβ1-42 induced mitochondrial fission and neuronal apoptosis

Alzheimer's disease, one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, is pathologically characterized by Amyloid beta containing plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Amyloid beta (Aβ) induces neuronal apoptosis through the intracellular Ca²⁺ increase, subsequent hyperactivation of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) and mitochondrial abnormality. Recently, Cdk5 was identified as an upstream regulator of mitochondrial fission during neuronal apoptosis, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, in vitro phosphorylation assays showed that Cdk5 could phosphorylate the recombinant Drp1 at Serine 579. Aβ_1-42 stimulation increased the phosphorylation level of Drp1 at Serine 579 in mouse cortical neurons. Cdk5 inhibitor roscovitine and knockdown of Cdk5 by a lentiviral vector expressing shRNA targeting Cdk5 (Lenti-Cdk5-shRNA) efficiently prevented Aβ_1-42 induced Drp1 phosphorylation in neurons. In addition, Aβ_1-42 stimulation induced markedly mitochondrial fission in neurons. Roscovitine, Lenti-Cdk5-shRNA and expression of phospho-defect mutatant GFP-Drp1-S579A in neurons attenuated Aβ_1-42 induced mitochondrial fission, whereas expression of phospho-mimetic mutant GFP-Drp1-S579D alone resulted in mitochondiral fission similar to Aβ_1-42 stimulation. Moreover, Roscovitine and Lenti-Cdk5-shRNA suppressed the cleavage of caspase-3 and protected neurons against Aβ_1-42 induced neuronal apoptosis.Thus, our data indicate that Drp1 is a direct target of Cdk5, and Cdk5-mediated phosphorylation of Drp1 at Serine 579 regulates Aβ_1-42 induced mitochondrial fission and neuronal toxicity.

Phosphorylation of the Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 by Cyclin-dependent Kinase 5 affects Chemo-nociception

Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) is a key neuronal kinase that is upregulated during inflammation, and can subsequently modulate sensitivity to nociceptive stimuli. We conducted an in silico screen for Cdk5 phosphorylation sites within proteins whose expression was enriched in nociceptors and identified the chemo-responsive ion channel Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) as a possible Cdk5 substrate. Immunoprecipitated full length TRPA1 was shown to be phosphorylated by Cdk5 and this interaction was blocked by TFP5, an inhibitor that prevents activation of Cdk5. In vitro peptide-based kinase assay revealed that four of six TRPA1 Cdk5 consensus sites acted as substrates for Cdk5, and modeling of the ankyrin repeats disclosed that phosphorylation would occur at characteristic pockets within the (T/S)PLH motifs. Calcium imaging of trigeminal ganglion neurons from genetically engineered mice overexpressing or lacking the Cdk5 activator p35 displayed increased or decreased responsiveness, respectively, to stimulation with the TRPA1 agonist allylisothiocyanate (AITC). AITC-induced chemo-nociceptive behavior was also heightened in vivo in mice overexpressing p35 while being reduced in p35 knockout mice. Our findings demonstrate that TRPA1 is a substrate of Cdk5 and that Cdk5 activity is also able to modulate TRPA1 agonist-induced calcium influx and chemo-nociceptive behavioral responses.

Cdk5 Regulation of the GRAB-Mediated Rab8-Rab11 Cascade in Axon Outgrowth

Neurons communicate with each other through their axons and dendrites. However, a full characterization of the molecular mechanisms involved in axon and dendrite formation is still incomplete. Neurite outgrowth requires the supply of membrane components for surface expansion. Two membrane sources for axon outgrowth are suggested: Golgi secretary vesicles and endocytic recycling endosomes. In non-neuronal cells, trafficking of secretary vesicles from Golgi is regulated by Rab8, a member of Rab small GTPases, and that of recycling endosomes is by Rab11, another member of Rabs. However, whether these vesicles are coordinately or independently transported in growing axons is unknown. Herein, we find that GRAB, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rab8, is a novel regulator of axon outgrowth. Knockdown of GRAB suppressed axon outgrowth of cultured mouse brain cortical neurons. GRAB mediates the interaction between Rab11A and Rab8A, and this activity is regulated by phosphorylation at Ser169 and Ser180 by Cdk5-p35. The nonphosphorylatable GRAB mutant S169/180A promoted axonal outgrowth to a greater extent than did the phosphomimetic GRAB mutant S169/180D. Phosphorylation of GRAB suppressed its guanine nucleotide exchange factor activity and its ability to recruit Rab8A- to Rab11A-positive endosomes. In vivo function of GRAB and its Cdk5-phophorylation were shown in migration and process formation of developing neurons in embryonic mouse brains. These results indicate that GRAB regulates axonal outgrowth via activation and recruitment of Rab8A- to Rab11A-positive endosomes in a Cdk5-dependent manner.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

While axon outgrowth requires membrane supply for surface expansion, the molecular mechanisms regulating the membrane transport in growing axons remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that GRAB, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rab8, is a novel regulator of axon outgrowth. GRAB promotes the axonal membrane transport by mediating the interaction between Rab11 and Rab8 in neurons. The activity of GRAB is regulated by phosphorylation with Cdk5. We describe an in vivo role for GRAB and its Cdk5 phosphorylation during neuronal migration and process formation in embryonic brains. Thus, the membrane supply for axonal outgrowth is regulated by Cdk5 through the Rab11-GRAB-Rab8 cascade.

Microtubule Organization Determines Axonal Transport Dynamics

Axonal microtubule (MT) arrays are the major cytoskeleton substrate for cargo transport. How MT organization, i.e., polymer length, number, and minus-end spacing, is regulated and how it impinges on axonal transport are unclear. We describe a method for analyzing neuronal MT organization using light microscopy. This method circumvents the need for electron microscopy reconstructions and is compatible with live imaging of cargo transport and MT dynamics. Examination of a C. elegans motor neuron revealed how age, MT-associated proteins, and signaling pathways control MT length, minus-end spacing, and coverage. In turn, MT organization determines axonal transport progression: cargoes pause at polymer termini, suggesting that switching MT tracks is rate limiting for efficient transport. Cargo run length is set by MT length, and higher MT coverage correlates with shorter pauses. These results uncover the principles and mechanisms of neuronal MT organization and its regulation of axonal cargo transport.

Functional Diversification of the Four MARCKS Family Members in Zebrafish Neural Development

Myristoylated alanin-rich C-kinase substrate (MARCKS) and MARCKS-like 1, each encoded by a different gene, comprise a very small family of actin-modulating proteins with essential roles in mammalian neural development. We show here that four genes (two marcks and two marcksl1) are present in teleosts including zebrafish, while ancient actinopterigians, sarcopterigian fishes, and chondrichtyans only have two. No marcks genes were found in agnaths or invertebrates. All four zebrafish genes are expressed during development, and we show here how their early knockdown causes defects in neural development, with some phenotypical differences. Knockdown of marcksa generated embryos with smaller brain and eyes, while marcksb caused different morphogenetic defects, such as larger hindbrain ventricle and folded retina. marcksl1a and marcksl1b morpholinos also caused smaller eyes and brain, although marcksl1a alone generated larger brain ventricles. At 24 hpf, marcksb caused a wider angle of the hindbrain walls, while marcksl1a showed a "T-shaped" neural tube and alterations in neuroepithelium organization. The double knockdown surprisingly produced new features, which included an increased neuroepithelial disorganization and partial neural tube duplications evident at 48 hpf, suggesting defects in convergent extension. This disorganization was also evident in the retina, although retinal ganglion cells were still able to differentiate. marcksl1b morphants presented a unique retinal phenotype characterized by the occurrence of sporadic ectopic neuronal differentiation. Although only marcksl1a morphant had a clear "ciliary phenotype," all presented significantly shorter cilia. Altogether, our data show that all marcks genes have functions in zebrafish neural development, with some differences that suggest the onset of protein diversification.

Targeted overexpression of tumor necrosis factor-α increases cyclin-dependent kinase 5 activity and TRPV1-dependent Ca2+ influx in trigeminal neurons

We reported earlier that TNF-α, a proinflammatory cytokine implicated in many inflammatory disorders causing orofacial pain, increases the activity of Cdk5, a key kinase involved in brain development and function and recently found to be involved in pain signaling. To investigate a potential mechanism underlying inflammatory pain in trigeminal ganglia (TGs), we engineered a transgenic mouse model (TNF) that can conditionally overexpresses TNF-α upon genomic recombination by Cre recombinase. TNF mice were bred with Nav1.8-Cre mouse line that expresses the Cre recombinase in sensory neurons to obtain TNF-α:Nav1.8-Cre (TNF-α cTg) mice. Although TNF-α cTg mice appeared normal without any gross phenotype, they displayed a significant increase in TNF-α levels after activation of NFκB signaling in the TG. IL-6 and MCP-1 levels were also increased along with intense immunostaining for Iba1 and GFAP in TG, indicating the presence of infiltrating macrophages and the activation of satellite glial cells. TNF-α cTg mice displayed increased trigeminal Cdk5 activity, and this increase was associated with elevated levels of phospho-T407-TRPV1 and capsaicin-evocated Ca influx in cultured trigeminal neurons. Remarkably, this effect was prevented by roscovitine, an inhibitor of Cdk5, which suggests that TNF-α overexpression induced sensitization of the TRPV1 channel. Furthermore, TNF-α cTg mice displayed more aversive behavior to noxious thermal stimulation (45°C) of the face in an operant pain assessment device as compared with control mice. In summary, TNF-α overexpression in the sensory neurons of TNF-α cTg mice results in inflammatory sensitization and increased Cdk5 activity; therefore, this mouse model would be valuable for investigating the mechanism of TNF-α involved in orofacial pain.

Reduction of ciliary length through pharmacologic or genetic inhibition of CDK5 attenuates polycystic kidney disease in a model of nephronophthisis

Polycystic kidney diseases (PKDs) comprise a subgroup of ciliopathies characterized by the formation of fluid-filled kidney cysts and progression to end-stage renal disease. A mechanistic understanding of cystogenesis is crucial for the development of viable therapeutic options. Here, we identify CDK5, a kinase active in post mitotic cells, as a new and important mediator of PKD progression. We show that long-lasting attenuation of PKD in the juvenile cystic kidneys (jck) mouse model of nephronophthisis by pharmacological inhibition of CDK5 using either R-roscovitine or S-CR8 is accompanied by sustained shortening of cilia and a more normal epithelial phenotype, suggesting this treatment results in a reprogramming of cellular differentiation. Also, a knock down of Cdk5 in jck cells using small interfering RNA results in significant shortening of ciliary length, similar to what we observed with R-roscovitine. Finally, conditional inactivation of Cdk5 in the jck mice significantly attenuates cystic disease progression and is associated with shortening of ciliary length as well as restoration of cellular differentiation. Our results suggest that CDK5 may regulate ciliary length by affecting tubulin dynamics via its substrate collapsin response mediator protein 2. Taken together, our data support therapeutic approaches aimed at restoration of ciliogenesis and cellular differentiation as a promising strategy for the treatment of renal cystic diseases.

Studying Nestin and its Interrelationship with Cdk5

Current research utilizes the specific expression pattern of intermediate filaments (IF) for identifying cellular state and origin, as well as for the purpose of disease diagnosis. Nestin is commonly utilized as a specific marker and driver for CNS progenitor cell types, but in addition, nestin can be found in several mesenchymal progenitor cells, and it is constitutively expressed in a few restricted locations, such as muscle neuromuscular junctions and kidney podocytes. Alike most other members of the IF protein family, nestin filaments are dynamic, constantly being remodeled through posttranslational modifications, which alter the solubility, protein levels, and signaling capacity of the nestin filaments. Through its interactions with kinases and other signaling executors, resulting in a complex and bidirectional regulation of cell signaling events, nestin has the potential to determine whether cells divide, differentiate, migrate, or stay in place. In this review, the broad and similar roles of IFs as dynamic signaling scaffolds, is exemplified by observations of nestin functions and its interaction with the cyclin- dependent kinase 5, the atypical kinase in the family of cyclin-dependent kinases.

The Role of Cdk5 in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is known as the most fatal chronic neurodegenerative disease in adults along with progressive loss of memory and other cognitive function disorders. Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5), a unique member of the cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks), is reported to intimately associate with the process of the pathogenesis of AD. Cdk5 is of vital importance in the development of CNS and neuron movements such as neuronal migration and differentiation, synaptic functions, and memory consolidation. However, when neurons suffer from pathological stimuli, Cdk5 activity becomes hyperactive and causes aberrant hyperphosphorylation of various substrates of Cdk5 like amyloid precursor protein (APP), tau and neurofilament, resulting in neurodegenerative diseases like AD. Deregulation of Cdk5 contributes to an array of pathological events in AD, ranging from formation of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, synaptic damage, mitochondrial dysfunction to cell cycle reactivation as well as neuronal cell apoptosis. More importantly, an inhibition of Cdk5 activity with inhibitors such as RNA inference (RNAi) could protect from memory decline and neuronal cell loss through suppressing β-amyloid (Aβ)-induced neurotoxicity and tauopathies. This review will briefly describe the above-mentioned possible roles of Cdk5 in the physiological and pathological mechanisms of AD, further discussing recent advances and challenges in Cdk5 as a therapeutic target.

Cdk5-mediated mitochondrial fission: A key player in dopaminergic toxicity in Huntington's disease

The molecular mechanisms underlying striatal vulnerability in Huntington's disease (HD) are still unknown. However, growing evidence suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction could play a major role. In searching for a potential link between striatal neurodegeneration and mitochondrial defects we focused on cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5). Here, we demonstrate that increased mitochondrial fission in mutant huntingtin striatal cells can be a consequence of Cdk5-mediated alterations in Drp1 subcellular distribution and activity since pharmacological or genetic inhibition of Cdk5 normalizes Drp1 function ameliorating mitochondrial fragmentation. Interestingly, mitochondrial defects in mutant huntingtin striatal cells can be worsened by D1 receptor activation a process also mediated by Cdk5 as down-regulation of Cdk5 activity abrogates the increase in mitochondrial fission, the translocation of Drp1 to the mitochondria and the raise of Drp1 activity induced by dopaminergic stimulation. In sum, we have demonstrated a new role for Cdk5 in HD pathology by mediating dopaminergic neurotoxicity through modulation of Drp1-induced mitochondrial fragmentation, which underscores the relevance for pharmacologic interference of Cdk5 signaling to prevent or ameliorate striatal neurodegeneration in HD.

Neuronal migration and protein kinases

The formation of the six-layered structure of the mammalian cortex via the inside-out pattern of neuronal migration is fundamental to neocortical functions. Extracellular cues such as Reelin induce intracellular signaling cascades through the protein phosphorylation. Migrating neurons also have intrinsic machineries to regulate cytoskeletal proteins and adhesion properties. Protein phosphorylation regulates these processes. Moreover, the balance between phosphorylation and dephosphorylation is modified by extracellular cues. Multipolar-bipolar transition, radial glia-guided locomotion and terminal translocation are critical steps of radial migration of cortical pyramidal neurons. Protein kinases such as Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) and c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) involve these steps. In this review, I shall give an overview the roles of protein kinases in neuronal migration.

Cdk5 regulates multiple cellular events in neural development, function and disease

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) generally regulate cell proliferation in dividing cells, including neural progenitors. In contrast, an unconventional CDK, Cdk5, is predominantly activated in post-mitotic cells, and involved in various cellular events, such as microtubule and actin cytoskeletal organization, cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix adhesions, and membrane trafficking. Interestingly, recent studies have indicated that Cdk5 is associated with several cell cycle-related proteins, Cyclin-E and p27(kip1) . Taking advantage of multiple functionality, Cdk5 plays important roles in neuronal migration, layer formation, axon elongation and dendrite arborization in many regions of the developing brain, including cerebral cortex and cerebellum. Cdk5 is also required for neurogenesis at least in the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, Cdk5 is reported to control neurotransmitter release at presynaptic sites, endocytosis of the NMDA receptor at postsynaptic sites and dendritic spine remodeling, and thereby regulate synaptic plasticity and memory formation and extinction. In addition to these physiological roles in brain development and function, Cdk5 is associated with many neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In this review, I will introduce the physiological and pathological roles of Cdk5 in mammalian brains from the viewpoint of not only in vivo phenotypes but also its molecular and cellular functions.