1
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Souri M, Kiani Shahvandi M, Chiani M, Moradi Kashkooli F, Farhangi A, Mehrabi MR, Rahmim A, Savage VM, Soltani M. Stimuli-sensitive nano-drug delivery with programmable size changes to enhance accumulation of therapeutic agents in tumors. Drug Deliv 2023; 30:2186312. [PMID: 36895188 PMCID: PMC10013474 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2023.2186312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Nano-based drug delivery systems hold significant promise for cancer therapies. Presently, the poor accumulation of drug-carrying nanoparticles in tumors has limited their success. In this study, based on a combination of the paradigms of intravascular and extravascular drug release, an efficient nanosized drug delivery system with programmable size changes is introduced. Drug-loaded smaller nanoparticles (secondary nanoparticles), which are loaded inside larger nanoparticles (primary nanoparticles), are released within the microvascular network due to temperature field resulting from focused ultrasound. This leads to the scale of the drug delivery system decreasing by 7.5 to 150 times. Subsequently, smaller nanoparticles enter the tissue at high transvascular rates and achieve higher accumulation, leading to higher penetration depths. In response to the acidic pH of tumor microenvironment (according to the distribution of oxygen), they begin to release the drug doxorubicin at very slow rates (i.e., sustained release). To predict the performance and distribution of therapeutic agents, a semi-realistic microvascular network is first generated based on a sprouting angiogenesis model and the transport of therapeutic agents is then investigated based on a developed multi-compartment model. The results show that reducing the size of the primary and secondary nanoparticles can lead to higher cell death rate. In addition, tumor growth can be inhibited for a longer time by enhancing the bioavailability of the drug in the extracellular space. The proposed drug delivery system can be very promising in clinical applications. Furthermore, the proposed mathematical model is applicable to broader applications to predict the performance of drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Souri
- Department of NanoBiotechnology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mohsen Chiani
- Department of NanoBiotechnology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Ali Farhangi
- Department of NanoBiotechnology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Arman Rahmim
- Departments of Radiology and Physics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Department of Integrative Oncology, BC Cancer Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Van M Savage
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Department of Computational Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA
| | - M Soltani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada.,Centre for Biotechnology and Bioengineering (CBB), University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada.,Advanced Bioengineering Initiative Center, Multidisciplinary International Complex, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
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2
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Kommineni N, Chaudhari R, Conde J, Tamburaci S, Cecen B, Chandra P, Prasad R. Engineered Liposomes in Interventional Theranostics of Solid Tumors. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2023; 9:4527-4557. [PMID: 37450683 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.3c00510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Engineered liposomal nanoparticles have unique characteristics as cargo carriers in cancer care and therapeutics. Liposomal theranostics have shown significant progress in preclinical and clinical cancer models in the past few years. Liposomal hybrid systems have not only been approved by the FDA but have also reached the market level. Nanosized liposomes are clinically proven systems for delivering multiple therapeutic as well as imaging agents to the target sites in (i) cancer theranostics of solid tumors, (ii) image-guided therapeutics, and (iii) combination therapeutic applications. The choice of diagnostics and therapeutics can intervene in the theranostics property of the engineered system. However, integrating imaging and therapeutics probes within lipid self-assembly "liposome" may compromise their overall theranostics performance. On the other hand, liposomal systems suffer from their fragile nature, site-selective tumor targeting, specific biodistribution and premature leakage of loaded cargo molecules before reaching the target site. Various engineering approaches, viz., grafting, conjugation, encapsulations, etc., have been investigated to overcome the aforementioned issues. It has been studied that surface-engineered liposomes demonstrate better tumor selectivity and improved therapeutic activity and retention in cells/or solid tumors. It should be noted that several other parameters like reproducibility, stability, smooth circulation, toxicity of vital organs, patient compliance, etc. must be addressed before using liposomal theranostics agents in solid tumors or clinical models. Herein, we have reviewed the importance and challenges of liposomal medicines in targeted cancer theranostics with their preclinical and clinical progress and a translational overview.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagavendra Kommineni
- Center for Biomedical Research, Population Council, New York, New York 10065, United States
| | - Ruchita Chaudhari
- School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi 221005, India
| | - João Conde
- ToxOmics, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, NMS|FCM, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa; Lisboa 1169-056, Portugal
| | - Sedef Tamburaci
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Izmir Institute of Technology, Gulbahce Campus, Izmir 35430, Turkey
| | - Berivan Cecen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey 08028, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey 08028, United States
| | - Pranjal Chandra
- School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Rajendra Prasad
- School of Biochemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi 221005, India
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3
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Haemmerich D, Ramajayam KK, Newton DA. Review of the Delivery Kinetics of Thermosensitive Liposomes. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15020398. [PMID: 36672347 PMCID: PMC9856714 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15020398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Thermosensitive liposomes (TSL) are triggered nanoparticles that release the encapsulated drug in response to hyperthermia. Combined with localized hyperthermia, TSL enabled loco-regional drug delivery to tumors with reduced systemic toxicities. More recent TSL formulations are based on intravascular triggered release, where drug release occurs within the microvasculature. Thus, this delivery strategy does not require enhanced permeability and retention (EPR). Compared to traditional nanoparticle drug delivery systems based on EPR with passive or active tumor targeting (typically <5%ID/g tumor), TSL can achieve superior tumor drug uptake (>10%ID/g tumor). Numerous TSL formulations have been combined with various drugs and hyperthermia devices in preclinical and clinical studies over the last four decades. Here, we review how the properties of TSL dictate delivery and discuss the advantages of rapid drug release from TSL. We show the benefits of selecting a drug with rapid extraction by tissue, and with quick cellular uptake. Furthermore, the optimal characteristics of hyperthermia devices are reviewed, and impact of tumor biology and cancer cell characteristics are discussed. Thus, this review provides guidelines on how to improve drug delivery with TSL by optimizing the combination of TSL, drug, and hyperthermia method. Many of the concepts discussed are applicable to a variety of other triggered drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Haemmerich
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Krishna K. Ramajayam
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
| | - Danforth A. Newton
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
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4
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Redox-sensitive doxorubicin liposome: a formulation approach for targeted tumor therapy. Sci Rep 2022; 12:11310. [PMID: 35788647 PMCID: PMC9253031 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15239-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study redox-sensitive (RS) liposomes manufactured using 10,10′-diselanediylbis decanoic acid (DDA), an organoselenium RS compound, to enhance the therapeutic performance of doxorubicin (Dox). The DDA structure was confirmed by 1H NMR and LC–MS/MS. Various liposomal formulations (33 formulations) were prepared using DOPE, Egg PC, and DOPC with Tm ˂ 0 and DDA. Some formulations had mPEG2000-DSPE and cholesterol. After extrusion, the external phase was exchanged with sodium bicarbonate to create a pH gradient. Then, Dox was remotely loaded into liposomes. The optimum formulations indicated a burst release of 30% in the presence of 0.1% hydrogen peroxide at pH 6.5, thanks to the redox-sensitive role of DDA moieties; conversely, Caelyx (PEGylated liposomal Dox) showed negligible release at this condition. RS liposomes consisting of DOPE/Egg PC/DDA at 37.5 /60/2.5% molar ratio, efficiently inhibited C26 tumors among other formulations. The release of Dox from RS liposomes in the TME through the DDA link fracture triggered by ROS or glutathione is seemingly the prerequisite for the formulations to exert their therapeutic action. These findings suggest the potential application of such intelligent formulations in the treatment of various malignancies where the TME redox feature could be exploited to achieve an improved therapeutic response.
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5
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Metal-organic framework-based hydrogel with structurally dynamic properties as a stimuli-responsive localized drug delivery system for cancer therapy. Acta Biomater 2022; 145:43-51. [PMID: 35398545 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Metal-organic framework (MOF) is an exciting class of porous biomaterials that have been considered as a carrier to store and deliver therapeutic drugs. However, similar to other nanomaterials, the application of MOF in clinical settings is still limited because of premature diffusion of their payloads and tissue off-targeting behavior. To overcome these challenges, we designed an MOF-based hydrogel with structurally dynamic properties, i.e., self-healing and shear-thinning, as an injectable localized drug delivery platform. The drug-encapsulating MOF hydrogel is formed through a dynamic coordination bond cross-linkage between a doxorubicin-loaded MOF (MOF@DOX) particle and a homemade bisphosphonate-modified hyaluronic acid (HA-BP) polymeric binder. The HA-BP·MOF@DOX hydrogel demonstrates pH- and ATP-responsive drug release characteristic and efficiently kills cancer cells in vitro. The animal experiments reveal that the HA-BP·MOF@DOX hydrogel has enhanced capability in terms of tumor growth suppression as compared to the MOF@DOX group, which can be attributed to drug localization in hydrogel superstructure and sustained release at the tumor site. The presented injectable dynamic MOF-based hydrogel is a promising in vivo localized drug delivery system for cancer treatment. Herein, we report the self-healing and shear-thinning of MOF-based drug carrier cross-linked by coordinate bonds for the first time and provide new insights and a facile chemical strategy for designing and fabricating MOF-based biomaterials by using bisphosphonate-zinc interaction. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Bisphosphonate-zinc interaction is a facile chemical strategy to cross-link metal-organic framework (MOF)-based hydrogel. The presented MOF-based hydrogel demonstrates structurally dynamic properties, including smooth injectability, self-healing, and shear-thinning. The developed MOF-based hydrogel possesses pH- and ATP-responsive drug release characteristic and kills cancer cells in vitro efficiently. The dynamic MOF-based hydrogel shows enhanced in vivo anticancer activity as compared to pure MOF particles. Self-healing and shear-thinning of metal-ligand cross-linked MOF-based drug delivery system are reported for the first time, thus providing new insights for the design and fabrication of MOF-based biomaterials.
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6
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Eras A, Castillo D, Suárez M, Vispo NS, Albericio F, Rodriguez H. Chemical Conjugation in Drug Delivery Systems. Front Chem 2022; 10:889083. [PMID: 35720996 PMCID: PMC9204480 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.889083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer is one of the diseases with the highest mortality rate. Treatments to mitigate cancer are usually so intense and invasive that they weaken the patient to cure as dangerous as the own disease. From some time ago until today, to reduce resistance generated by the constant administration of the drug and improve its pharmacokinetics, scientists have been developing drug delivery system (DDS) technology. DDS platforms aim to maximize the drugs’ effectiveness by directing them to reach the affected area by the disease and, therefore, reduce the potential side effects. Erythrocytes, antibodies, and nanoparticles have been used as carriers. Eleven antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) involving covalent linkage has been commercialized as a promising cancer treatment in the last years. This review describes the general features and applications of DDS focused on the covalent conjugation system that binds the antibody carrier to the cytotoxic drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Eras
- School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Yachay Tech University, Urcuquí, Ecuador
| | - Danna Castillo
- School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Yachay Tech University, Urcuquí, Ecuador
| | - Margarita Suárez
- Laboratorio de Síntesis Orgánica, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la Habana, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Nelson Santiago Vispo
- School of Biological Sciences and Engineering, Yachay Tech University, Urcuquí, Ecuador
- *Correspondence: Nelson Santiago Vispo, ; Fernando Albericio, ; Hortensia Rodriguez,
| | - Fernando Albericio
- Department of Surfactants and Nanobiotechnology, Institute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia (IQAC-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER-BBN, Networking Centre of Bioengineering, Biomaterials, and Nanomedicine and Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
- *Correspondence: Nelson Santiago Vispo, ; Fernando Albericio, ; Hortensia Rodriguez,
| | - Hortensia Rodriguez
- School of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Yachay Tech University, Urcuquí, Ecuador
- *Correspondence: Nelson Santiago Vispo, ; Fernando Albericio, ; Hortensia Rodriguez,
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7
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Analysis of Magneto-Hyperthermia Duration in Nano-sized Drug Delivery System to Solid Tumors Using Intravascular-Triggered Thermosensitive-Liposome. Pharm Res 2022; 39:753-765. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-022-03255-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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8
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Bhattacharya S, Patel R, Joshi A. The Most Recent Discoveries in Heterocyclic Nanoformulations for Targeted Anticancer Therapy. Mini Rev Med Chem 2022; 22:1735-1751. [PMID: 35114919 DOI: 10.2174/138955752203220202164839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Every day, new cases of cancer patients whose recovery is delayed by multidrug resistance and chemotherapy side effects are identified, which severely limit treatment options. One of the most recent advances in nanotechnology is the effective usage of nanotechnology as drug carriers for cancer therapy. As a consequence, heterocyclic nanocarriers were put into practice to see whether they could have a better cure with positive results. The potential of a therapeutic agent to meet its desired goal is vital to its success in treating any disease. Heterocyclic moieties are molecules that have a wide variety of chemically therapeutic functions as well as a significant biological activity profile. Heterocyclic nano formulations play an important role in cell physiology and as possible arbitrators for typical biological reactions, making them valuable in cancer research. As a result, experts are working with heterocyclic nanoformulations to discover alternative approaches to treat cancer. Due to their unique physicochemical properties, heterocyclic compounds are real cornerstones in medicinal chemistry and promising compounds for the future drug delivery system. This review briefly explores the therapeutic relevance of heterocyclic compounds in cancer treatment, the various nanoformulations, and actively describes heterocyclic magnetic nano catalysts and heterocyclic moiety, as well as their mode of action, which have favorable anti - cancer effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sankha Bhattacharya
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, SVKM\'S NMIMS Deemed-to-be University, Shirpur, Maharashtra 425405, India
| | - Rajat Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, SVKM\'S NMIMS Deemed-to-be University, Shirpur, Maharashtra 425405, India
| | - Aalind Joshi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, SVKM\'S NMIMS Deemed-to-be University, Shirpur, Maharashtra 425405, India
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9
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Grabarnick (Portnoy) E, Andriyanov AV, Han H, Eyal S, Barenholz Y. PEGylated Liposomes Remotely Loaded with the Combination of Doxorubicin, Quinine, and Indocyanine Green Enable Successful Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Tumors. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13122181. [PMID: 34959462 PMCID: PMC8708987 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13122181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) of cancer cells remains a major obstacle to favorable outcomes of treatment with many drugs, including doxorubicin. Most of the clinical trials failed to demonstrate the benefit of the drug efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitors to circumvent P-gp-mediated drug resistance in vivo. The present study explored the therapeutic potential of combined treatment with liposomal doxorubicin, P-gp inhibitor quinine, and the photodynamic therapy (PDT) using indocyanine green (ICG) in the adenocarcinoma drug-resistant tumor model. Liposomes were actively co-remotely loaded with doxorubicin and quinine, and ICG was passively adsorbed. The liposomes were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and cryogenic transmission microscopy (Cryo-TEM). We found that quinine impaired the crystalline structure of doxorubicin. In vitro, treatment with single agents themselves was insufficient to inhibit the growth of HT-29 MDR1 cells. However, pegylated liposomal doxorubicin and quinine (PLDQ) significantly diminished HT-29 MDR1 cell survival. Furthermore, survival inhibition intensified by the addition of ICG to the PLDQ (ICG + PLDQ). In vivo, ICG + PLDQ significantly decreased tumor growth when combined with tumor irradiation with NIR light (** p < 0.01). ICG + PLDQ + irradiation was superior to single treatments or combinational treatments without irradiation. These findings suggest that ICG + PLDQ can overcome P-gp-mediated MDR in cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Grabarnick (Portnoy)
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hadassah Medical School, Hebrew University, P.O. Box 12272, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel; (E.G.); (A.V.A.)
| | - Alexander V. Andriyanov
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hadassah Medical School, Hebrew University, P.O. Box 12272, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel; (E.G.); (A.V.A.)
| | - Hadas Han
- Institute for Drug Research, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel; (H.H.); (S.E.)
| | - Sara Eyal
- Institute for Drug Research, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel; (H.H.); (S.E.)
| | - Yechezkel Barenholz
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hadassah Medical School, Hebrew University, P.O. Box 12272, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel; (E.G.); (A.V.A.)
- Correspondence:
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10
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Guo RB, Zhang XY, Yan DK, Yu YJ, Wang YJ, Geng HX, Wu YN, Liu Y, Kong L, Li XT. Folate-modified triptolide liposomes target activated macrophages for safe rheumatoid arthritis therapy. Biomater Sci 2021; 10:499-513. [PMID: 34904598 DOI: 10.1039/d1bm01520f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease characterized by synovial joint hyperplasia, joint inflammation, cartilage erosion and bone destruction. Macrophages play an essential role in the pathogenesis of RA, and folate receptor β (FR-β) is highly expressed on the surface of activated synovial macrophages in RA patients. Triptolide (TP) has anti-inflammatory properties, and it can protect the cartilage matrix, but its clinical application has been limited due to poor solubility, low bioavailability and systemic toxicity. Therefore, we constructed folate-modified triptolide liposomes (FA-TP-Lips) to target macrophages, thereby treating RA in a safe and effective way. The experiments indicated that FA-TP-Lips had properties of small particle size, uniform particle size distribution, high drug encapsulation and long circulation. Furthermore, FA-TP-Lips showed reduced cytotoxicity, increased cellular uptake and significant anti-inflammatory effects in vitro. It also inhibited osteoclastogenesis. In vivo experiments revealed that liposomes could prolong the circulation of TP in the body, as well as exhibit significant cartilage-protective and anti-inflammatory effects with lower toxicity compared with the free TP group, thereby providing a promising new approach for the treatment of RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui-Bo Guo
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - Xin-Yue Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - De-Kang Yan
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - Ying-Jie Yu
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - Yu-Jia Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - Hong-Xia Geng
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - Ya-Nan Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - Yang Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - Liang Kong
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
| | - Xue-Tao Li
- School of Pharmacy, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shengming 1 Road 77, Double D port, Dalian 116600, China.
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11
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Computational modeling of thermal combination therapies by magneto-ultrasonic heating to enhance drug delivery to solid tumors. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19539. [PMID: 34599207 PMCID: PMC8486865 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98554-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
For the first time, inspired by magnetic resonance imaging-guidance high intensity focused ultrasound (MR-HIFU) technology, i.e., medication therapy and thermal ablation in one session, in a preclinical setting based on a developed mathematical model, the performance of doxorubicin (Dox) and its encapsulation have been investigated in this study. Five different treatment methods, that combine medication therapy with mild hyperthermia by MRI contrast (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$\gamma -{Fe}_{2}{O}_{3}$$\end{document}γ-Fe2O3) and thermal ablation via HIFU, are investigated in detail. A comparison between classical chemotherapy and thermochemistry shows that temperature can improve the therapeutic outcome by stimulating biological properties. On the other hand, the intravascular release of ThermoDox increases the concentration of free drug by 2.6 times compared to classical chemotherapy. The transport of drug in interstitium relies mainly on the diffusion mechanism to be able to penetrate deeper and reach the cancer cells in the inner regions of the tumor. Due to the low drug penetration into the tumor center, thermal ablation has been used for necrosis of the central areas before thermochemotherapy and ThermoDox therapy. Perfusion of the region around the necrotic zone is found to be damaged, while cells in the region are alive and not affected by medication therapy; so, there is a risk of tumor recurrence. Therefore, it is recommended that ablation be performed after the medication therapy. Our model describes a comprehensive assessment of MR-HIFU technology, taking into account many effective details, which can be a reliable guide towards the optimal use of drug delivery systems.
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12
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Carrion CC, Nasrollahzadeh M, Sajjadi M, Jaleh B, Soufi GJ, Iravani S. Lignin, lipid, protein, hyaluronic acid, starch, cellulose, gum, pectin, alginate and chitosan-based nanomaterials for cancer nanotherapy: Challenges and opportunities. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 178:193-228. [PMID: 33631269 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.02.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Although nanotechnology-driven drug delivery systems are relatively new, they are rapidly evolving since the nanomaterials are deployed as effective means of diagnosis and delivery of assorted therapeutic agents to targeted intracellular sites in a controlled release manner. Nanomedicine and nanoparticulate drug delivery systems are rapidly developing as they play crucial roles in the development of therapeutic strategies for various types of cancer and malignancy. Nevertheless, high costs, associated toxicity and production of complexities are some of the critical barriers for their applications. Green nanomedicines have continually been improved as one of the viable approaches towards tumor drug delivery, thus making a notable impact on which considerably affect cancer treatment. In this regard, the utilization of natural and renewable feedstocks as a starting point for the fabrication of nanosystems can considerably contribute to the development of green nanomedicines. Nanostructures and biopolymers derived from natural and biorenewable resources such as proteins, lipids, lignin, hyaluronic acid, starch, cellulose, gum, pectin, alginate, and chitosan play vital roles in the development of cancer nanotherapy, imaging and management. This review uncovers recent investigations on diverse nanoarchitectures fabricated from natural and renewable feedstocks for the controlled/sustained and targeted drug/gene delivery systems against cancers including an outlook on some of the scientific challenges and opportunities in this field. Various important natural biopolymers and nanomaterials for cancer nanotherapy are covered and the scientific challenges and opportunities in this field are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Carrillo Carrion
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Edificio Marie Curie, Ctra Nnal IV-A Km. 396, E-14014 Cordoba, Spain
| | | | - Mohaddeseh Sajjadi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Qom, Qom 37185-359, Iran
| | - Babak Jaleh
- Department of Physics, Bu-Ali Sina University, 65174 Hamedan, Iran
| | | | - Siavash Iravani
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
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13
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Abstract
Nanoparticles from natural and anthropogenic sources are abundant in the environment, thus human exposure to nanoparticles is inevitable. Due to this constant exposure, it is critically important to understand the potential acute and chronic adverse effects that nanoparticles may cause to humans. In this review, we explore and highlight the current state of nanotoxicology research with a focus on mechanistic understanding of nanoparticle toxicity at organ, tissue, cell, and biomolecular levels. We discuss nanotoxicity mechanisms, including generation of reactive oxygen species, nanoparticle disintegration, modulation of cell signaling pathways, protein corona formation, and poly(ethylene glycol)-mediated immunogenicity. We conclude with a perspective on potential approaches to advance current understanding of nanoparticle toxicity. Such improved understanding may lead to mitigation strategies that could enable safe application of nanoparticles in humans. Advances in nanotoxicity research will ultimately inform efforts to establish standardized regulatory frameworks with the goal of fully exploiting the potential of nanotechnology while minimizing harm to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Yang
- Stephenson School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA;
| | - Lin Wang
- Stephenson School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA;
| | - Evan M Mettenbrink
- Stephenson School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA;
| | - Paul L DeAngelis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104, USA
| | - Stefan Wilhelm
- Stephenson School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA; .,Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Technology (IBEST), Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA.,Stephenson Cancer Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73104, USA
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14
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Condello M, Mancini G, Meschini S. The Exploitation of Liposomes in the Inhibition of Autophagy to Defeat Drug Resistance. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:787. [PMID: 32547395 PMCID: PMC7272661 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a mechanism involved in many human diseases and in cancers can have a cytotoxic/cytostatic or protective action, being in the latter case involved in multidrug resistance. Understanding which of these roles autophagy has in cancer is thus fundamental for therapeutical decisions because it permits to optimize the therapeutical approach by activating or inhibiting autophagy according to the progression of the disease. However, a serious drawback of cancer treatment is often the scarce availability of drugs and autophagy modulators at the sites of interest. In the recent years, several nanocarriers have been developed and investigated to improve the solubility, bioavailability, controlled release of therapeutics and increase their cytotoxic effect on cancer cell. Here we have reviewed only liposomes as carriers of chemotherapeutics and autophagy inhibitors because they have low toxicity and immunogenicity and they are biodegradable and versatile. In this review after the analysis of the dual role of autophagy, of the main autophagic pathways, and of the role of autophagy in multidrug resistance, we will focus on the most effective liposomal formulations, thus highlighting the great potential of these targeting systems to defeat cancer diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Condello
- National Center for Drug Research and Evaluation, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanna Mancini
- Institute for Biological Systems, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefania Meschini
- National Center for Drug Research and Evaluation, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy
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15
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Motamarry A, Negussie AH, Rossmann C, Small J, Wolfe AM, Wood BJ, Haemmerich D. Real-time fluorescence imaging for visualization and drug uptake prediction during drug delivery by thermosensitive liposomes. Int J Hyperthermia 2020; 36:817-826. [PMID: 31451077 DOI: 10.1080/02656736.2019.1642521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Thermosensitive liposomal doxorubicin (TSL-Dox) is a promising stimuli-responsive nanoparticle drug delivery system that rapidly releases the contained drug in response to hyperthermia (HT) (>40 °C). Combined with localized heating, TSL-Dox allows highly localized delivery. The goals of this study were to demonstrate that real-time fluorescence imaging can visualize drug uptake during delivery, and can predict tumor drug uptake. Methods: Nude mice carrying subcutaneous tumors (Lewis lung carcinoma) were anesthetized and injected with TSL-Dox (5 mg/kg dose). Localized HT was induced by heating tumors for 15, 30 or 60 min via a custom-designed HT probe placed superficially at the tumor location. In vivo fluorescence imaging (excitation 523 nm, emission 610 nm) was performed before, during, and for 5 min following HT. After imaging, tumors were extracted, drug uptake was quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography, and correlated with in vivo fluorescence. Plasma samples were obtained before and after HT to measure TSL-Dox pharmacokinetics. Results: Local drug uptake could be visualized in real-time during HT. Compared to unheated control tumors, fluorescence of heated tumors increased by 4.6-fold (15 min HT), 9.3-fold (30 min HT), and 13.2-fold (60 min HT). HT duration predicted tumor drug uptake (p = .02), with tumor drug concentrations of 4.2 ± 1.3 µg/g (no HT), 7.1 ± 5.9 µg/g (15 min HT), 14.1 ± 6.7 µg/g (30 min HT) and 21.4 ± 12.6 µg/g (60 min HT). There was good correlation (R2 = 0.67) between fluorescence of the tumor region and tumor drug uptake. Conclusions: Real-time in vivo fluorescence imaging can visualize drug uptake during delivery, and can predict tumor drug uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjan Motamarry
- Department of Drug Discovery & Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , SC , USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , SC , USA
| | - Ayele H Negussie
- Center for Interventional Oncology, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Christian Rossmann
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , SC , USA
| | - James Small
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , SC , USA
| | - A Marissa Wolfe
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , SC , USA
| | - Bradford J Wood
- Center for Interventional Oncology, Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Dieter Haemmerich
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston , SC , USA.,Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University , Clemson , SC , USA
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16
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Du Y, Wang Z, Wang T, He W, Zhou W, Li M, Yao C, Li X. Improved Antitumor Activity of Novel Redox-Responsive Paclitaxel-Encapsulated Liposomes Based on Disulfide Phosphatidylcholine. Mol Pharm 2019; 17:262-273. [PMID: 31747284 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.9b00988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The microtubule inhibitor paclitaxel (PTX) is used to treat a wide range of solid tumors. Due to the poor aqueous solubility of PTX, a continuous demand for safe, efficient PTX formulations with improved antitumor activity exists. Here, we report a novel form of redox-sensitive paclitaxel (PTX)-encapsulated liposomes based on the previously developed disulfide phosphatidylcholine (SS-PC). PTX-loaded stealth liposomes (PTX/SS-LP) composed of SS-PC, 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-PEG2000 (DSPE-PEG2000), and cholesterol were prepared using the reverse-phase evaporation method. The characterization of the PTX/SS-LP liposomes using dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy confirmed their uniform particle size and typical unilamellar vesicle structure with an average bilayer thickness of approximately 4 nm. Changes in the size and morphology as well as the rapid release of PTX triggered by the addition of dithiothreitol revealed the redox sensitivity of PTX/SS-LP. Finally, evaluations in MCF-7 and A549 cells in vitro and in BALB/c mice in vivo revealed the improved anticancer efficiency, biodistribution, and safety of PTX/SS-LP compared with those of Taxol and nonredox-sensitive PTX/LP. In conclusion, PTX/SS-LP displays a redox-responsive release of paclitaxel with improved antitumor activity and has great potential as a next-generation stealth liposomal PTX delivery system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yawei Du
- Department of Plastic Surgery , Peking Union Medical College Hospital , Beijing 100730 , P. R. China.,School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Southeast University , Nanjing , Jiangsu 211189 , P. R. China
| | - Zhi Wang
- Department of Plastic Surgery , Peking Union Medical College Hospital , Beijing 100730 , P. R. China
| | - Tao Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Southeast University , Nanjing , Jiangsu 211189 , P. R. China
| | - Wei He
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Southeast University , Nanjing , Jiangsu 211189 , P. R. China
| | - Wenya Zhou
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Southeast University , Nanjing , Jiangsu 211189 , P. R. China
| | - Man Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Southeast University , Nanjing , Jiangsu 211189 , P. R. China
| | - Chen Yao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Southeast University , Nanjing , Jiangsu 211189 , P. R. China
| | - Xinsong Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Southeast University , Nanjing , Jiangsu 211189 , P. R. China
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17
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Bavli Y, Winkler I, Chen BM, Roffler S, Cohen R, Szebeni J, Barenholz Y. Doxebo (doxorubicin-free Doxil-like liposomes) is safe to use as a pre-treatment to prevent infusion reactions to PEGylated nanodrugs. J Control Release 2019; 306:138-148. [PMID: 31176656 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The increasing use in the last decade of PEGylated nanodrugs such as Doxil® has seen a rise in the number of associated occurrences of hypersensitivity reactions (HSRs). These reactions (also called infusion reactions or IR), can range from harmless symptoms to life-threatening reactions. Current means to prevent IR include the prophylactic use of antihistamines and steroids, but they cannot ensure total prevention. We previously showed that an intravenous injection of doxorubicin-free Doxil-like PEGylated nano-liposomes (Doxebo) prior to Doxil treatment suppresses Doxil-induced complement activation-related pseudoallergy (CARPA) in pigs, a model of human hypersensitivity reactions to Doxil. However, in order to use Doxebo to prevent Doxil-induced IR, we have to prove its safety and that it does not affect Doxil's performance. Here we show that Doxebo itself does not have toxic effects on the host or tumor, and it does not interfere with Doxil's antitumor activity in mice. Blood, microscopic and macroscopic organ evaluation of rats after repeated administration confirm the lack of intrinsic adverse effect of Doxebo. Likewise, the repeated injection of Doxebo before Doxil did not impact Doxil's pharmacokinetics in plasma and therefore does not cause accelerated blood clearance (ABC). Taken together with our previous publications, these data suggest that the injection of Doxebo prior to Doxil administration can help protect against Doxil-induced IR without adversely affecting treatment efficacy and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaelle Bavli
- Laboratory of Membrane and Liposome Research, IMRIC, Hebrew University - Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Bing Mae Chen
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Steve Roffler
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Rivka Cohen
- Laboratory of Membrane and Liposome Research, IMRIC, Hebrew University - Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Janos Szebeni
- Nanomedicine Research and Education Center, Department of Pathophysiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary; SeroScience Ltd, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Yechezkel Barenholz
- Laboratory of Membrane and Liposome Research, IMRIC, Hebrew University - Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel.
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18
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The Accumulation and Effects of Liposomal Doxorubicin in Tissues Treated by Radiofrequency Ablation and Irreversible Electroporation in Liver: In Vivo Experimental Study on Porcine Models. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2019; 42:751-762. [DOI: 10.1007/s00270-019-02175-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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19
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Bing C, Patel P, Staruch RM, Shaikh S, Nofiele J, Wodzak Staruch M, Szczepanski D, Williams NS, Laetsch T, Chopra R. Longer heating duration increases localized doxorubicin deposition and therapeutic index in Vx2 tumors using MR-HIFU mild hyperthermia and thermosensitive liposomal doxorubicin. Int J Hyperthermia 2018; 36:196-203. [PMID: 30541350 PMCID: PMC6430695 DOI: 10.1080/02656736.2018.1550815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/17/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Thermosensitive liposomal doxorubicin (LTSL-Dox) combined with mild hyperthermia enhances the localized delivery of doxorubicin (Dox) within a heated region. The optimal heating duration and the impact of extended heating on systemic drug distribution are unknown. Here we evaluated local and systemic Dox delivery with two different mild hyperthermia durations (42 °C for 10 or 40 minutes) in a Vx2 rabbit tumor model. We hypothesized that longer duration of hyperthermia would increase Dox concentration in heated tumors without increasing systemic exposure. Temporally and spatially accurate controlled hyperthermia was achieved using a clinical MR-HIFU system for the prescribed heating durations. Forty-minutes of heating resulted in a nearly 6-fold increase in doxorubicin concentration in heated vs unheated tumors in the same animals. Therapeutic ratio, defined as the ratio of Dox delivered into the heated tumor vs the heart, increased from 1.9-fold with 10 minutes heating to 4.4-fold with 40 minutes heating. MR-HIFU can be used to guide, deliver and monitor mild hyperthermia of a Vx2 tumor model in a rabbit model, and an increased duration of heating leads to higher Dox deposition from LTSL-Dox in a target tumor without a concomitant increase in systemic exposure. Results from this preclinical study can be used to help establish clinical treatment protocols for hyperthermia mediated drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenchen Bing
- Department of Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | | | - Robert M. Staruch
- Department of Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Profound Medical, Mississauga, ON, Canada
| | - Sumbul Shaikh
- Department of Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Joris Nofiele
- Department of Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | | | - Debra Szczepanski
- Department of Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Noelle S. Williams
- Department of Biochemistry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Theodore Laetsch
- Children’s Health, Dallas, TX, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology-Oncology and Harold C. Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Rajiv Chopra
- Department of Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
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20
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Li T, Cipolla D, Rades T, Boyd BJ. Drug nanocrystallisation within liposomes. J Control Release 2018; 288:96-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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21
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Chiang YT, Lyu SY, Wen YH, Lo CL. Preparation and Characterization of Electrostatically Crosslinked Polymer⁻Liposomes in Anticancer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E1615. [PMID: 29848991 PMCID: PMC6032249 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19061615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 05/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
pH-sensitive polymer⁻liposomes can rapidly release their payloads. However, it is difficult to simultaneously achieve stability and pH-responsiveness in the polymer⁻liposomes. In this study, stable and pH-sensitive crosslinked polymer⁻liposomes were fabricated through electrostatic interactions. The pH-sensitive copolymer methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(methacrylic acid)-cholesterol (mPEG-b-P(MAAc)-chol) and crosslinking reagent poly(ethylene glycol) with end-capped with lysine (PEG-Lys2) were synthesized and characterized. At physiological conditions, the pH-sensitive copolymers were anionic and interacted electrostatically with the cationic crosslinker PEG-Lys2, forming the electrostatically-crosslinked polymer⁻liposomes and stabilizing the liposomal structure. At pH 5.0, the carboxylic groups in mPEG-b-P(MAAc)-chol were neutralized, and the liposomal structure was destroyed. The particle size of the crosslinked polymer⁻liposomes was approximately 140 nm and the polymer⁻liposomes were loaded with the anticancer drug doxorubicin. At pH 7.4, the crosslinked polymer⁻liposomes exhibited good stability with steady particle size and low drug leakage, even in the presence of fetal bovine serum. At pH 5.0, the architecture of the crosslinked polymer⁻liposomes was damaged following rapid drug release, as observed by using transmission electron microscopy and their apparent size variation. The crosslinked polymer⁻liposomes were pH-sensitive within the endosome and in the human breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231, as determined by using confocal laser scanning microscopy. The intracellular drug release profiles indicated cytotoxicity in cancer cells. These results indicated that the highly-stable and pH-sensitive electrostatically-crosslinked polymer⁻liposomes offered a potent drug-delivery system for use in anticancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ting Chiang
- School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Taichung City 402, Taiwan.
| | - Sih-Ying Lyu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Yang Ming University, Taipei City 112, Taiwan.
| | - Yu-Han Wen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Yang Ming University, Taipei City 112, Taiwan.
| | - Chun-Liang Lo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Yang Ming University, Taipei City 112, Taiwan.
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22
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Mortensen KI, Tassone C, Ehrlich N, Andresen TL, Flyvbjerg H. How To Characterize Individual Nanosize Liposomes with Simple Self-Calibrating Fluorescence Microscopy. NANO LETTERS 2018; 18:2844-2851. [PMID: 29614230 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b05312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Nanosize lipid vesicles are used extensively at the interface between nanotechnology and biology, e.g., as containers for chemical reactions at minute concentrations and vehicles for targeted delivery of pharmaceuticals. Typically, vesicle samples are heterogeneous as regards vesicle size and structural properties. Consequently, vesicles must be characterized individually to ensure correct interpretation of experimental results. Here we do that using dual-color fluorescence labeling of vesicles-of their lipid bilayers and lumens, separately. A vesicle then images as two spots, one in each color channel. A simple image analysis determines the total intensity and width of each spot. These four data all depend on the vesicle radius in a simple manner for vesicles that are spherical, unilamellar, and optimal encapsulators of molecular cargo. This permits identification of such ideal vesicles. They in turn enable calibration of the dual-color fluorescence microscopy images they appear in. Since this calibration is not a separate experiment but an analysis of images of vesicles to be characterized, it eliminates the potential source of error that a separate calibration experiment would have been. Nonideal vesicles in the same images were characterized by how their four data violate the calibrated relationship established for ideal vesicles. In this way, our method yields size, shape, lamellarity, and encapsulation efficiency of each imaged vesicle. Applying this procedure to extruded samples of vesicles, we found that, contrary to common assumptions, only a fraction of vesicles are ideal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim I Mortensen
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Kongens Lyngby , DK-2800 , Denmark
| | - Chiara Tassone
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Kongens Lyngby , DK-2800 , Denmark
| | - Nicky Ehrlich
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Kongens Lyngby , DK-2800 , Denmark
| | - Thomas L Andresen
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Kongens Lyngby , DK-2800 , Denmark
| | - Henrik Flyvbjerg
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology , Technical University of Denmark , Kongens Lyngby , DK-2800 , Denmark
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23
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Simulation of Stimuli-Responsive and Stoichiometrically Controlled Release Rate of Doxorubicin from Liposomes in Tumor Interstitial Fluid. Pharm Res 2018; 35:103. [PMID: 29557075 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-018-2380-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To simulate the stimuli-responsive and stoichiometrically controlled doxorubicin (DOX) release from liposomes in in vivo tumor interstitial fluid (TIF), the effect of ammonia concentration and pH on the DOX release from liposomes in human plasma at 37°C was quantitatively evaluated in vitro and the release rate was calculated as a function of ammonia concentration and pH. METHODS Human plasma samples spiked with DOX-loaded PEGylated liposomes (PLD) or Doxil®, containing ammonia (0.3-50 mM) at different pH values, were incubated at 37°C for 24 h. After incubation, the concentration of encapsulated DOX in the samples was determined by validated solid-phase extraction (SPE)-SPE-high performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS Accelerated DOX release (%) from liposomes was observed as the increase of ammonia concentration and pH of the matrix, and the decrease of encapsulated DOX concentration. The release rate was expressed as a function of the ammonia concentration and pH by using Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. CONCLUSIONS The DOX release from PLD in TIF was expressed as a function ammonia concentration and pH at various DOX concentrations. Further, it was found that the DOX release from liposomes in a simulated TIF was more than 15 times higher than in normal plasma.
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24
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Ho L, Bokharaei M, Li SD. Current update of a thermosensitive liposomes composed of DPPC and Brij78. J Drug Target 2018; 26:407-419. [DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2017.1419361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Ho
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Mehrdad Bokharaei
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Shyh-Dar Li
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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25
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Lokerse WJM, Eggermont AMM, Grüll H, Koning GA. Development and evaluation of an isolated limb infusion model for investigation of drug delivery kinetics to solid tumors by thermosensitive liposomes and hyperthermia. J Control Release 2017; 270:282-289. [PMID: 29269141 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2017.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The combined administration of thermosensitive liposomes (TSLs) and hyperthermia (HT) has been increasingly shown to be a powerful tool for the treatment of solid tumors. At present, it is hypothesized that the circulation of TSLs through the vasculature of a heated tumor results in the rapid release of the entrapped drug, followed by its uptake and distribution within the tumor microenvironment. However, simple questions on the transport kinetics of TSLs through the heated tumor and how much drug is retained upon passage of TSLs through the tumor microcirculation have not been investigated in an experimental setting to-date. The present work describes a novel methodology for investigating these parameters by isolated limb infusion (ILI), developed in a rat model of sarcoma. This approach was used to assess the efficacy of Doxorubicin (Dox) delivery by TSL in a heated (42°C) tumor following a single passage of TSL through the tumor vasculature. Analysis of the effluent post-ILI, whole-tumor histological sections, and tissue homogenates revealed that upon a single passage, Dox delivery by TSL at 42°C did not exceed delivery under conventional (i.e. free Dox) or physiological (i.e. TSL at 37°C, or normothermia; NT) conditions. In fact, mathematical modeling demonstrated that at least thirteen passages are required to obtain the intratumoral Dox levels typically achieved using TSL (i.e. ~5%ID/g). Overall, this work investigates TSL-based determinants for achieving efficacious drug delivery using a model of ILI in tumor-bearing rats and the results bear important implications for TSL disposition in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter J M Lokerse
- Laboratory Experimental Surgical Oncology, Section Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Medical Clinic III, University Hospital of Munich, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany.
| | | | - Holger Grüll
- Department of Radiology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Gerben A Koning
- Laboratory Experimental Surgical Oncology, Section Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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26
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Yan F, Wang S, Yang W, Goldberg SN, Wu H, Duan WL, Deng ZT, Han HB, Zheng HR. Tumor-penetrating Peptide-integrated Thermally Sensitive Liposomal Doxorubicin Enhances Efficacy of Radiofrequency Ablation in Liver Tumors. Radiology 2017. [PMID: 28631963 DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2017162405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the role of a tumor-penetrating peptide (internalizing CRGDRGPDC [iRGD])-integrated thermally sensitive liposomal (TSL) doxorubicin (DOX) in combination with radiofrequency (RF) ablation of liver tumors in an animal model. Materials and Methods Approval from the institutional animal care and use committee was obtained. Characterization of iRGD-TSL-DOX was performed in vitro. Next, H22 liver adenocarcinomas were implanted in 138 mice in vivo. The DOX accumulation and cell apoptosis of iRGD-TSL-DOX and TSL-DOX with or without RF were evaluated (n = 5) at different time points after treatment with quantitative analysis or pathologic staining. Mice bearing tumors were randomized into the following six groups (each group, eight mice): no treatment, iRGD-TSL-DOX, TSL-DOX, RF alone, RF ablation followed by TSL-DOX at 30 minutes (TSL-DOX combined with RF), and RF ablation followed by iRGD-TSL-DOX (iRGD-TSL-DOX combined with RF). Kaplan-Meier method was used to estimate the survival curves and log-rank test was used for comparison with statistical software. Results DOX encapsulation efficiency in iRGD-TSL-DOX was 97.5% ± 1.3 (standard deviation) with temperature-dependent drug release capability confirmed in vitro. In vivo, the iRGD-TSL-DOX group had overall higher DOX concentration in the tumor and had maximal difference at 24 hours compared with TSL-DOX group (2.7-fold). RF caused more intense cell apoptosis at 24 hours (median, 65% vs 21%, respectively; P < .001). For end-point survival, the iRGD-TSL-DOX combined with RF group had better survival (median, 32 days) than TSL-DOX combined with RF (median, 27 days; P = .035) or RF alone (median, 21 days; P < .001). Conclusion Conjugation to iRGD helped to improve intratumoral DOX accumulation and further enhanced the activity of TSL-DOX in RF ablation of liver tumors. © RSNA, 2017 Online supplemental material is available for this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Yan
- From the Paul C. Lauterbur Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China (F.Y., Z.T.D., H.R.Z.); Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., W.Y., H.W.), and Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Cell Biology Department (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China; Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Department of Ultrasound, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, China (W.L.D.)
| | - Song Wang
- From the Paul C. Lauterbur Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China (F.Y., Z.T.D., H.R.Z.); Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., W.Y., H.W.), and Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Cell Biology Department (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China; Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Department of Ultrasound, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, China (W.L.D.)
| | - Wei Yang
- From the Paul C. Lauterbur Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China (F.Y., Z.T.D., H.R.Z.); Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., W.Y., H.W.), and Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Cell Biology Department (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China; Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Department of Ultrasound, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, China (W.L.D.)
| | - S Nahum Goldberg
- From the Paul C. Lauterbur Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China (F.Y., Z.T.D., H.R.Z.); Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., W.Y., H.W.), and Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Cell Biology Department (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China; Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Department of Ultrasound, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, China (W.L.D.)
| | - Hao Wu
- From the Paul C. Lauterbur Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China (F.Y., Z.T.D., H.R.Z.); Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., W.Y., H.W.), and Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Cell Biology Department (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China; Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Department of Ultrasound, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, China (W.L.D.)
| | - Wan-Lu Duan
- From the Paul C. Lauterbur Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China (F.Y., Z.T.D., H.R.Z.); Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., W.Y., H.W.), and Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Cell Biology Department (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China; Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Department of Ultrasound, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, China (W.L.D.)
| | - Zhi-Ting Deng
- From the Paul C. Lauterbur Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China (F.Y., Z.T.D., H.R.Z.); Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., W.Y., H.W.), and Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Cell Biology Department (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China; Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Department of Ultrasound, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, China (W.L.D.)
| | - Hai-Bo Han
- From the Paul C. Lauterbur Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China (F.Y., Z.T.D., H.R.Z.); Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., W.Y., H.W.), and Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Cell Biology Department (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China; Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Department of Ultrasound, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, China (W.L.D.)
| | - Hai-Rong Zheng
- From the Paul C. Lauterbur Research Center for Biomedical Imaging, Institute of Biomedical and Health Engineering, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China (F.Y., Z.T.D., H.R.Z.); Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., W.Y., H.W.), and Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Cell Biology Department (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China; Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Department of Ultrasound, Guangzhou General Hospital of Guangzhou Military Command, Guangzhou, China (W.L.D.)
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Rossmann C, McCrackin MA, Armeson KE, Haemmerich D. Temperature sensitive liposomes combined with thermal ablation: Effects of duration and timing of heating in mathematical models and in vivo. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0179131. [PMID: 28604815 PMCID: PMC5467840 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0179131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Temperature sensitive liposomes (TSL) are nanoparticles that rapidly release the contained drug at hyperthermic temperatures, typically above ~40°C. TSL have been combined with various heating modalities, but there is no consensus on required hyperthermia duration or ideal timing of heating relative to TSL administration. The goal of this study was to determine changes in drug uptake when heating duration and timing are varied when combining TSL with radiofrequency ablation (RF) heating. METHODS We used computer models to simulate both RF tissue heating and TSL drug delivery, to calculate spatial drug concentration maps. We simulated heating for 5, 12 and 30 min for a single RF electrode, as well as three sequential 12 min ablations for 3 electrodes placed in a triangular array. To support simulation results, we performed porcine in vivo studies in normal liver, where TSL filled with doxorubicin (TSL-Dox) at a dose of 30 mg was infused over 30 min. Following infusion, RF heating was performed in separate liver locations for either 5 min (n = 2) or 12 min (n = 2). After ablation, the animal was euthanized, and liver extracted and frozen. Liver samples were cut orthogonal to the electrode axis, and fluorescence imaging was used to visualize tissue doxorubicin distribution. RESULTS Both in vivo studies and computer models demonstrate a ring-shaped drug deposition within ~1 cm of the visibly coagulated tissue. Drug uptake directly correlated with heating duration. In computer simulations, drug concentration increased by a factor of 2.2x and 4.3x when heating duration was extended from 5 to either 12, or 30 minutes, respectively. In vivo, drug concentration was by a factor of 2.4x higher at 12 vs 5 min heating duration (7.1 μg/g to 3.0 μg/g). The computer models suggest that heating should be timed to maximize area under the curve of systemic plasma concentration of encapsulated drug. CONCLUSIONS Both computer models and in vivo study demonstrate that tissue drug uptake directly correlates with heating duration for TSL based delivery. Computational models were able to predict the spatial drug delivery profile, and may serve as a valuable tool in understanding and optimizing drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Rossmann
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Univ. of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - M. A. McCrackin
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Medical Univ. of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
- Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Kent E. Armeson
- Hollings Cancer Center, Medical Univ. of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Dieter Haemmerich
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical Univ. of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Bioengineering, Clemson Univ., Clemson, South Carolina, United States of America
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Development of Safe and Potent Oil-in-Water Emulsion of Paclitaxel to Treat Peritoneal Dissemination. J Pharm Sci 2017; 106:1143-1148. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2016.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Andriyanov AV, Portnoy E, Koren E, Inesa S, Eyal S, Goldberg SN, Barenholz Y. Therapeutic efficacy of combined PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin and radiofrequency ablation: Comparing single and combined therapy in young and old mice. J Control Release 2017; 257:2-9. [PMID: 28215670 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2017.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Antitumor therapy in the elderly is particularly challenging due to multiple, often chronic diseases, poly-therapy, and age-related physiological changes that affect drug efficacy and safety. Furthermore, tumors may become more aggressive and drug-resistant with advanced age, leading to poor patient prognosis. In this study, we evaluated in mice bearing medulloblastoma xenografts the effect of age on tumor progression and tumor therapy. We focused on therapeutic efficacy of two treatment modalities alone radiofrequency ablation therapy (RFA), PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) equivalent to Doxil, and their combination. We demonstrated that tumor growth rate was higher and survival was lower in old versus young mice (p<0.05). Likewise, tumors in old mice were less susceptible to either PLD or RFA monotherapy. However, combined therapy of PLD and RFA succeeded to eliminate the age-related differences in anti-cancer treatment efficacy (p>0.05) by the two monotherapies. The results on PLD therapy are supported by preferable PEGylated nano-liposomes accumulation in tumors of young mice compared to old mice, as determined by near-infrared imaging with indocyanine green (ICG)-labeled PEGylated nano-liposomes. Taken together, our findings suggest that age effects on tumor progression and tumor monotherapy outcome may potentially be related to changes in tumor microenvironment, and that these changes can be overcome by RFA as this technique abolishes these differences and significantly improves success of PLD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V Andriyanov
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hebrew University -Hadassah Medical School, P.O.B. 12272, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Emma Portnoy
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hebrew University -Hadassah Medical School, P.O.B. 12272, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Erez Koren
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hebrew University -Hadassah Medical School, P.O.B. 12272, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Semenenko Inesa
- Institute for Drug Research, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Sara Eyal
- Institute for Drug Research, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - S Nahum Goldberg
- Radiology Department, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Ein Karem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yechezkel Barenholz
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hebrew University -Hadassah Medical School, P.O.B. 12272, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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Anchordoquy TJ, Barenholz Y, Boraschi D, Chorny M, Decuzzi P, Dobrovolskaia MA, Farhangrazi ZS, Farrell D, Gabizon A, Ghandehari H, Godin B, La-Beck NM, Ljubimova J, Moghimi SM, Pagliaro L, Park JH, Peer D, Ruoslahti E, Serkova NJ, Simberg D. Mechanisms and Barriers in Cancer Nanomedicine: Addressing Challenges, Looking for Solutions. ACS NANO 2017; 11:12-18. [PMID: 28068099 PMCID: PMC5542883 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b08244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Remarkable progress has recently been made in the synthesis and characterization of engineered nanoparticles for imaging and treatment of cancers, resulting in several promising candidates in clinical trials. Despite these advances, clinical applications of nanoparticle-based therapeutic/imaging agents remain limited by biological, immunological, and translational barriers. In order to overcome the existing status quo in drug delivery, there is a need for open and frank discussion in the nanomedicine community on what is needed to make qualitative leaps toward translation. In this Nano Focus, we present the main discussion topics and conclusions from a recent workshop: "Mechanisms and Barriers in Nanomedicine". The focus of this informal meeting was on biological, toxicological, immunological, and translational aspects of nanomedicine and approaches to move the field forward productively. We believe that these topics reflect the most important issues in cancer nanomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J. Anchordoquy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
| | - Yechezkel Barenholz
- Laboratory of Membrane and Liposome Research, IMRIC, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
| | - Diana Boraschi
- Institute of Protein Biochemistry, National Research Council, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Michael Chorny
- Department of Pediatrics, Perelman School of Medicine and the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Paolo Decuzzi
- Laboratory of Nanotechnology for Precision Medicine, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 16163 Genoa, Italy
| | - Marina A. Dobrovolskaia
- Nanotechnology Characterization Lab, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Z. Shadi Farhangrazi
- Biotrends International, Denver Technological Center, Greenwood Village, Colorado 80111, United States
- University College, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado 80208, United States
| | - Dorothy Farrell
- Office of Cancer Nanotechnology Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Alberto Gabizon
- Oncology Institute, Shaare Zedek Medical Center, and Hebrew University-School of Medicine, Jerusalem 9103102, Israel
| | - Hamidreza Ghandehari
- Departments of Pharmaceutics, Pharmaceutical Chemistry and of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Biana Godin
- Department of Nanomedicine, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Ninh M. La-Beck
- Departments of Immunotherapeutics and Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Abilene, Texas 79601, United States
| | - Julia Ljubimova
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Departments of Neurosurgery and of Biomedical Sciences, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - S. Moein Moghimi
- School of Medicine, Pharmacy and Health, Durham University, Queen’s Campus, Stockton-On-Tees TS17 6BH, United Kingdom
| | - Len Pagliaro
- Siva Therapeutics Inc., Austin, Texas 78759, United States
| | - Ji-Ho Park
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Dan Peer
- Departments of Cell Research and Immunology and of Materials Sciences and Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Erkki Ruoslahti
- Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Natalie J. Serkova
- Departments of Anesthesiology, Radiation Oncology, Radiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
| | - Dmitri Simberg
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
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Recent expansion of pharmaceutical nanotechnologies and targeting strategies in the field of phytopharmaceuticals for the delivery of herbal extracts and bioactives. J Control Release 2016; 241:110-124. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2016] [Revised: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Carter KA, Luo D, Razi A, Geng J, Shao S, Ortega J, Lovell JF. Sphingomyelin Liposomes Containing Porphyrin-phospholipid for Irinotecan Chemophototherapy. Theranostics 2016; 6:2329-2336. [PMID: 27877238 PMCID: PMC5118598 DOI: 10.7150/thno.15701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Porphyrin-phospholipid (PoP) liposomes can entrap anti-cancer agents and release them in response to near infrared (NIR) light. Doxorubicin, when remotely loaded via an ammonium sulfate gradient at a high drug-to-lipid ratio, formed elongated crystals that altered liposome morphology and could not be loaded into liposomes with higher PoP content. On the other hand, irinotecan could also be remotely loaded but did not form large crystals and did not induce liposome elongation. The loading, stability, and NIR light-triggered release of irinotecan in PoP liposomes was altered by the types of lipids used and the presence of PEGylation. Sphingomyelin, which has been explored previously for liposomal irinotecan, was found to produce liposomes with relatively improved serum stability and rapid NIR light-triggered drug release. PoP liposomes composed from sphingomyelin, cholesterol and 2 molar percent PoP rapidly released irinotecan in vivo in response to NIR irradiation as monitored by intravital microscopy and also induced effective tumor eradication in mice bearing MIA Paca-2 subcutaneous tumor xenografts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin A Carter
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, 14260
| | - Dandan Luo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, 14260
| | - Aida Razi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences and M. G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Diseases Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S4L8, Canada
| | - Jumin Geng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, 14260
| | - Shuai Shao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, 14260
| | - Joaquin Ortega
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences and M. G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Diseases Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S4L8, Canada
| | - Jonathan F Lovell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, 14260
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Siafaka PI, Üstündağ Okur N, Karavas E, Bikiaris DN. Surface Modified Multifunctional and Stimuli Responsive Nanoparticles for Drug Targeting: Current Status and Uses. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:E1440. [PMID: 27589733 PMCID: PMC5037719 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17091440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanocarriers, due to their unique features, are of increased interest among researchers working with pharmaceutical formulations. Polymeric nanoparticles and nanocapsules, involving non-toxic biodegradable polymers, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and inorganic-organic nanomaterials, are among the most used carriers for drugs for a broad spectrum of targeted diseases. In fact, oral, injectable, transdermal-dermal and ocular formulations mainly consist of the aforementioned nanomaterials demonstrating promising characteristics such as long circulation, specific targeting, high drug loading capacity, enhanced intracellular penetration, and so on. Over the last decade, huge advances in the development of novel, safer and less toxic nanocarriers with amended properties have been made. In addition, multifunctional nanocarriers combining chemical substances, vitamins and peptides via coupling chemistry, inorganic particles coated by biocompatible materials seem to play a key role considering that functionalization can enhance characteristics such as biocompatibility, targetability, environmental friendliness, and intracellular penetration while also have limited side effects. This review aims to summarize the "state of the art" of drug delivery carriers in nanosize, paying attention to their surface functionalization with ligands and other small or polymeric compounds so as to upgrade active and passive targeting, different release patterns as well as cell targeting and stimuli responsibility. Lastly, future aspects and potential uses of nanoparticulated drug systems are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panoraia I Siafaka
- Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Macedonia, Greece.
| | - Neslihan Üstündağ Okur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, Istanbul Medipol University, Beykoz 34810, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | | | - Dimitrios N Bikiaris
- Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Technology, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Macedonia, Greece.
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Wei X, Cohen R, Barenholz Y. Insights into composition/structure/function relationships of Doxil® gained from "high-sensitivity" differential scanning calorimetry. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2016; 104:260-70. [PMID: 27106607 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2016.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Thermotropic behavior of Doxil® and its generic, Lipodox®, was characterized using "high-sensitivity" differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). This is the first report that two distinct endotherms were observed in Doxil and Lipodox upon heating. The first (Tm at 51±2°C) is broad and of low enthalpy, representing the membrane lipid phase transition, which occurs despite having high (38mole%) cholesterol. The second (Tm at ∼70°C) is narrow, representing melting of the intraliposomal doxorubicin-sulfate nanocrystals. The thermograms of Doxil and Lipodox are practically identical. The membrane phase transition is similar to that of drug-free nanoliposomes of the same size and lipid composition as Doxil, suggesting lack of significant drug-membrane interaction. The melting endotherm of the intraliposomal nanocrystals is 2.0-2.5-fold narrower than that of the crystals formed in a solution of 250mM ammonium sulfate and >60mg/ml doxorubicin. This suggests that nanovolume of liposomes improves doxorubicin-sulfate crystallinity. Moreover, both phase transitions are reversible in cycled DSC scanning (15-90-15°C). This indicates an unexpected "non-leaky" phospholipid phase transition and excellent physical and chemical stabilities of Doxil after short exposure to high temperature. Reducing mole% of cholesterol results in a "leaky" membrane phase transition of higher enthalpy. Namely, high mole% cholesterol is essential for the resistance to drug leakage during phase transition. Pegylated liposomal doxorubicin in which HSPC was replaced by DPPC shows the same non-leaky phase transition but at a lower temperature, indicating this type of phase transition is not unique to Doxil. The presence of DSPE-PEG2k increases the cooperativity of the phase transition. High-sensitivity DSC helps illuminate composition/structure/function relationships of Doxil, and is useful for the equivalence/similarity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Wei
- Laboratory of Membrane and Liposome Research, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, IMRIC, Jerusalem, Israel; School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Rivka Cohen
- Laboratory of Membrane and Liposome Research, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, IMRIC, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yechezkel Barenholz
- Laboratory of Membrane and Liposome Research, The Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, IMRIC, Jerusalem, Israel.
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Goins B, Phillips WT, Bao A. Strategies for improving the intratumoral distribution of liposomal drugs in cancer therapy. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2016; 13:873-89. [PMID: 26981891 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2016.1167035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A major limitation of current liposomal cancer therapies is the inability of liposome therapeutics to penetrate throughout the entire tumor mass. This inhomogeneous distribution of liposome therapeutics within the tumor has been linked to treatment failure and drug resistance. Both liposome particle transport properties and tumor microenvironment characteristics contribute to this challenge in cancer therapy. This limitation is relevant to both intravenously and intratumorally administered liposome therapeutics. AREAS COVERED Strategies to improve the intratumoral distribution of liposome therapeutics are described. Combination therapies of intravenous liposome therapeutics with pharmacologic agents modulating abnormal tumor vasculature, interstitial fluid pressure, extracellular matrix components, and tumor associated macrophages are discussed. Combination therapies using external stimuli (hyperthermia, radiofrequency ablation, magnetic field, radiation, and ultrasound) with intravenous liposome therapeutics are discussed. Intratumoral convection-enhanced delivery (CED) of liposomal therapeutics is reviewed. EXPERT OPINION Optimization of the combination therapies and drug delivery protocols are necessary. Further research should be conducted in appropriate cancer types with consideration of physiochemical features of liposomes and their timing sequence. More investigation of the role of tumor associated macrophages in intratumoral distribution is warranted. Intratumoral infusion of liposomes using CED is a promising approach to improve their distribution within the tumor mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Goins
- a Department of Radiology , University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio , San Antonio , TX , USA
| | - William T Phillips
- a Department of Radiology , University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio , San Antonio , TX , USA
| | - Ande Bao
- b Department of Radiation Oncology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University/University Hospitals Case Medical Center , Cleveland , OH , USA
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Li M, Fei X, Shi F, Dou J, Wu S, Wu D, Zhang Y, Pan M, Luo S, Gu N. Homoharringtonine delivered by high proportion PEG of long- circulating liposomes inhibits RPMI8226 multiple myeloma cells in vitro and in vivo. Am J Transl Res 2016; 8:1355-1368. [PMID: 27186264 PMCID: PMC4859624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Multiple myeloma (MM) remains an incurable disease in most patients. Homoharringtonine (HHT) is a natural alkaloid produced by various Cephalotaxus species, and is approved by the United States of America Food and Drug Administration to treat patients with acute and chronic myeloid lymphoma. The aim of this study was to develop the high proportion polyethyleneglycol (PEG) of long-circulating HHT liposomes (LCL-HHT-H-PEG) and investigate its therapeutic applicability in vitro and in vivo against RPMI8226 MM. The optimized formulation of LCL-HHT-H-PEG showed a higher association with cytotoxicity against MM RPMI8226 cells than those of low proportion PEG of long-circulating HHT liposomes, liposome-encapsulated-HHT, micelle-HHT, and HHT in vitro. Therapeutic experiments in severe combined immunodeficient mice implanted with MM RPMI8226 cells by the subcutaeous route showed the significant inhibition of tumor growth in LCL-HHT-H-PEG group compared with the HHT group, and other control groups. The analysis of flow cytometry and transmission electron microscopy indicated that LCL-HHT-H-PEG exerted the cytotoxicity against MM by inducing the MM apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. This study suggests that our developed LCL-HHT-H-PEG may be regarded as a promising nano-device to deliver anti-MM drug HHT for treatment of MM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Li
- Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210009, China
| | - Xiong Fei
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210096, China
| | - Fangfang Shi
- Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210009, China
| | - Jun Dou
- Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210009, China
| | - Songyan Wu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210009, China
| | - Di Wu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210009, China
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210009, China
| | - Yunxia Zhang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210009, China
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Zhongda Hospital, School of Medicine, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210009, China
| | - Meng Pan
- Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210009, China
| | - Shouhua Luo
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210096, China
| | - Ning Gu
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast UniversityNanjing 210096, China
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Al-Ahmady Z, Kostarelos K. Chemical Components for the Design of Temperature-Responsive Vesicles as Cancer Therapeutics. Chem Rev 2016; 116:3883-918. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zahraa Al-Ahmady
- Nanomedicine Lab, Faculty of Medical & Human Sciences, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
- UCL
School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Life Science, University College London, Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, United Kingdom
- Manchester
Pharmacy School, University of Manchester, Stopford Building, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
| | - Kostas Kostarelos
- Nanomedicine Lab, Faculty of Medical & Human Sciences, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Manchester M13 9PT, United Kingdom
- UCL
School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Life Science, University College London, Brunswick Square, London WC1N 1AX, United Kingdom
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Landesman-Milo D, Peer D. Transforming Nanomedicines From Lab Scale Production to Novel Clinical Modality. Bioconjug Chem 2016; 27:855-62. [PMID: 26734836 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.5b00607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The use of nanoparticles as anticancer drug carriers has been studied for over 50 years. These nanoparticles that can carry drugs are now termed "nanomedicines". Since the approval of the first FDA "nanodrug", DOXIL in 1995, tremendous efforts have been made to develop hundreds of nanomedicines based on different materials. The development of drug nanocarriers (NCs) for cancer therapy is especially challenging and requires multidisciplinary approach. Not only is the translation from a lab scale production of the NCs to clinical scale a challenge, but tumor biology and its unique physiology also possess challenges that need to be overcome with cleverer approaches. Yet, with all the efforts made to develop new strategies to deliver drugs (including small molecules and biologics) for cancer therapy, the number of new NCs that are reaching clinical trials is extremely low. Here we discuss the reasons most of the NCs loaded with anticancer drugs are not likely to reach the clinic and emphasize the importance of understanding tumor physiology and heterogeneity, the use of predictive animal models, and the importance of sharing data as key denominators for potential successful translation of NCs from a bench scale into clinical modality for cancer care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalit Landesman-Milo
- Laboratory of NanoMedicine, Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University , Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Dan Peer
- Laboratory of NanoMedicine, Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University , Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
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Wang S, Mei XG, Goldberg SN, Ahmed M, Lee JC, Gong W, Han HB, Yan K, Yang W. Does Thermosensitive Liposomal Vinorelbine Improve End-Point Survival after Percutaneous Radiofrequency Ablation of Liver Tumors in a Mouse Model? Radiology 2016; 279:762-72. [PMID: 26785043 DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2015150787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the role of thermosensitive liposome-encapsulated vinorelbine (Thermo-Vin) in combined radiofrequency (RF) ablation of liver tumors. Materials and Methods Approval from the institutional animal care and use committee was obtained before this study. First, the anticancer efficacy of Thermo-Vin was assessed in vitro (H22 cells) for 72 hours at 37°C or 42°C. Next, 203 H22 liver adenocarcinomas were implanted in 191 mice for in vivo study. Tumors were randomized into seven groups: (a) no treatment, (b) treatment with RF ablation alone, (c) treatment with RF ablation followed by free vinorelbine (Free-Vin) at 30 minutes, (d) treatment with RF ablation followed by empty liposomes (Empty-Lip+RF), (e) treatment with RF ablation followed by Thermo-Vin (5 mg/kg), (f) treatment with RF ablation followed by Thermo-Vin (10 mg/kg), and (g) treatment with RF ablation followed by Thermo-Vin (20 mg/kg). Tumor destruction areas and pathologic changes were compared for different groups at 24 and 72 hours after treatment. Kaplan-Meier analysis was used to compare end-point survival (tumor < 30 mm in diameter). Additionally, the effect of initial tumor size on long-term outcome was analyzed. Results In vitro, both Free-Vin and Thermo-Vin dramatically inhibited H22 cell viability at 24 hours. Likewise, in vivo, 10 mg/kg Thermo-Vin+RF ablation increased tumor destruction compared with RF ablation (P = .001). Intratumoral vinorelbine accumulation with Thermo-Vin+RF increased 15-fold compared with Free-Vin alone. Thermo-Vin substantially increased apoptosis at the coagulation margin and suppressed cellular proliferation in the residual tumor (P < .001). The Thermo-Vin+RF study arm also had better survival than the arm treated with RF ablation alone (mean, 37.6 days ± 20.1 vs 23.4 days ± 5.0; P = .001), the arm treated with Free-Vin+RF (23.3 days ± 1.2, P = .002), or the arm treated with Empty-Lip+RF (20.8 days ± 0.4, P < .001) in animals with medium-sized (10-12-mm) tumors. No significant difference in end-point survival was noted in the treatment arms with large or small tumors. Conclusion Thermo-Vin can effectively increase tumor destruction and improve animal survival. End-point survival is most affected in animals with medium-sized tumors, suggesting that combination therapy should be tailored to tumor size and the expected volume of ablation of the device used. (©) RSNA, 2016 Online supplemental material is available for this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Wang
- From the Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., J.C.L., K.Y., W.Y.) and Department of Biobank (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, 52 Fucheng Rd, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China; State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China (X.G.M., W.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G., M.A.)
| | - Xing-Guo Mei
- From the Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., J.C.L., K.Y., W.Y.) and Department of Biobank (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, 52 Fucheng Rd, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China; State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China (X.G.M., W.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G., M.A.)
| | - S Nahum Goldberg
- From the Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., J.C.L., K.Y., W.Y.) and Department of Biobank (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, 52 Fucheng Rd, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China; State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China (X.G.M., W.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G., M.A.)
| | - Muneeb Ahmed
- From the Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., J.C.L., K.Y., W.Y.) and Department of Biobank (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, 52 Fucheng Rd, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China; State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China (X.G.M., W.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G., M.A.)
| | - Jung-Chieh Lee
- From the Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., J.C.L., K.Y., W.Y.) and Department of Biobank (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, 52 Fucheng Rd, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China; State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China (X.G.M., W.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G., M.A.)
| | - Wei Gong
- From the Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., J.C.L., K.Y., W.Y.) and Department of Biobank (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, 52 Fucheng Rd, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China; State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China (X.G.M., W.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G., M.A.)
| | - Hai-Bo Han
- From the Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., J.C.L., K.Y., W.Y.) and Department of Biobank (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, 52 Fucheng Rd, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China; State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China (X.G.M., W.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G., M.A.)
| | - Kun Yan
- From the Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., J.C.L., K.Y., W.Y.) and Department of Biobank (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, 52 Fucheng Rd, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China; State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China (X.G.M., W.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G., M.A.)
| | - Wei Yang
- From the Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education), Department of Ultrasound (S.W., J.C.L., K.Y., W.Y.) and Department of Biobank (H.B.H.), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, 52 Fucheng Rd, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China; State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China (X.G.M., W.G.); Division of Image-guided Therapy, Department of Radiology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel (S.N.G.); and Laboratory for Minimally Invasive Tumor Therapies, Department of Radiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (S.N.G., M.A.)
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Tao X, Jin S, Wu D, Ling K, Yuan L, Lin P, Xie Y, Yang X. Effects of Particle Hydrophobicity, Surface Charge, Media pH Value and Complexation with Human Serum Albumin on Drug Release Behavior of Mitoxantrone-Loaded Pullulan Nanoparticles. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2015; 6:E2. [PMID: 28344259 PMCID: PMC5302549 DOI: 10.3390/nano6010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 12/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We prepared two types of cholesterol hydrophobically modified pullulan nanoparticles (CHP) and carboxyethyl hydrophobically modified pullulan nanoparticles (CHCP) substituted with various degrees of cholesterol, including 3.11, 6.03, 6.91 and 3.46 per polymer, and named CHP-3.11, CHP-6.03, CHP-6.91 and CHCP-3.46. Dynamic laser light scattering (DLS) showed that the pullulan nanoparticles were 80-120 nm depending on the degree of cholesterol substitution. The mean size of CHCP nanoparticles was about 160 nm, with zeta potential -19.9 mV, larger than CHP because of the carboxyethyl group. A greater degree of cholesterol substitution conferred greater nanoparticle hydrophobicity. Drug-loading efficiency depended on nanoparticle hydrophobicity, that is, nanoparticles with the greatest degree of cholesterol substitution (6.91) showed the most drug encapsulation efficiency (90.2%). The amount of drug loading increased and that of drug release decreased with enhanced nanoparticle hydrophobicity. Nanoparticle surface-negative charge disturbed the amount of drug loading and drug release, for an opposite effect relative to nanoparticle hydrophobicity. The drug release in pullulan nanoparticles was higher pH 4.0 than pH 6.8 media. However, the changed drug release amount was not larger for negative-surface nanoparticles than CHP nanoparticles in the acid release media. Drug release of pullulan nanoparticles was further slowed with human serum albumin complexation and was little affected by nanoparticle hydrophobicity and surface negative charge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Tao
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410013, China.
| | - Shu Jin
- Department of Gastroenterology, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan 442000, China.
| | - Dehong Wu
- Department of Radiology, Taihe Hospital, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan 442000, China.
| | - Kai Ling
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410013, China.
| | - Liming Yuan
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410013, China.
| | - Pingfa Lin
- Fujian Vocational College of Bioengineering, Fuzhou 350300, China.
| | - Yongchao Xie
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410013, China.
| | - Xiaoping Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410013, China.
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Wong AW, Fite BZ, Liu Y, Kheirolomoom A, Seo JW, Watson KD, Mahakian LM, Tam SM, Zhang H, Foiret J, Borowsky AD, Ferrara KW. Ultrasound ablation enhances drug accumulation and survival in mammary carcinoma models. J Clin Invest 2015; 126:99-111. [PMID: 26595815 DOI: 10.1172/jci83312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) facilitates noninvasive image-guided conformal thermal therapy of cancer. Yet in many scenarios, the sensitive tissues surrounding the tumor constrain the margins of ablation; therefore, augmentation of MRgFUS with chemotherapy may be required to destroy remaining tumor. Here, we used 64Cu-PET-CT, MRI, autoradiography, and fluorescence imaging to track the kinetics of long-circulating liposomes in immunocompetent mammary carcinoma-bearing FVB/n and BALB/c mice. We observed a 5-fold and 50-fold enhancement of liposome and drug concentration, respectively, within MRgFUS thermal ablation-treated tumors along with dense accumulation within the surrounding tissue rim. Ultrasound-enhanced drug accumulation was rapid and durable and greatly increased total tumor drug exposure over time. In addition, we found that the small molecule gadoteridol accumulates around and within ablated tissue. We further demonstrated that dilated vasculature, loss of vascular integrity resulting in extravasation of blood cells, stromal inflammation, and loss of cell-cell adhesion and tissue architecture all contribute to the enhanced accumulation of the liposomes and small molecule probe. The locally enhanced liposome accumulation was preserved even after a multiweek protocol of doxorubicin-loaded liposomes and partial ablation. Finally, by supplementing ablation with concurrent liposomal drug therapy, a complete and durable response was obtained using protocols for which a sub-mm rim of tumor remained after ablation.
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Chen L, Sun J, Yang X. Radiofrequency ablation-combined multimodel therapies for hepatocellular carcinoma: Current status. Cancer Lett 2015; 370:78-84. [PMID: 26472630 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2015.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Revised: 09/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is widely accepted as a first-line interventional oncology approach for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and has the advantages of high treatment efficacy and low complication risk. Local control rates equivalent to hepatic resection can be reached by RFA alone when treating small HCCs (<2 cm) in favorable locations. However, local tumor progression and recurrence rates with RFA monotherapy increase sharply when treating larger lesions (>3 cm). To address this clinical problem, recent efforts have focused on multimodel management of HCC by combining RFA with different techniques, including percutaneous ethanol injection, transarterial chemo-embolization, targeted molecular therapy, nanoparticle-mediated therapy, and immunotherapy. The combination strategy indeed leads to better outcomes in comparison to RFA alone. In this article, we review the current status of RFA-combined multimodal therapies in the management of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lumin Chen
- Department of Radiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jihong Sun
- Department of Radiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoming Yang
- Department of Radiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China; Image-Guided Bio-Molecular Interventions Research, Department of Radiology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA.
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Silverman L, Barenholz Y. In vitro experiments showing enhanced release of doxorubicin from Doxil® in the presence of ammonia may explain drug release at tumor site. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2015; 11:1841-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2015.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Revised: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Zhu X, Zhang H, Huang H, Zhang Y, Hou L, Zhang Z. Functionalized graphene oxide-based thermosensitive hydrogel for magnetic hyperthermia therapy on tumors. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 26:365103. [PMID: 26291977 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/26/36/365103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A novel locally injectable, biodegradable, and thermo-sensitive hydrogel made from chitosan and β-glycerophosphate salt was prepared. It incorporated polyethylenimine (PEI)-modified super-paramagnetic graphene oxide (GO/IONP/PEI) as a form of minimally invasive treatment of cancer lesions by magnetically induced local hyperthermia. Doxorubicin (DOX) was mixed into the hydrogel which was pre-loaded on GO/IONP/PEI to create a drug delivery system DOX-GO/IONP/PEI-gel. In addition to the evaluation of in vitro and in vivo antitumor activities, the physicochemical properties, magnetic properties and DOX release profile of the DOX-GO/IONP/PEI-gel were determined. The aqueous solution of the hydrogel showed a sol-gel transition behavior depending on temperature changes. Magnetization loops indicated the super-paramagnetic properties of GO/IONP/PEI. Compared with free DOX, DOX-GO/IONP/PEI could efficiently pass through cell membranes, leading to more apoptosis and demonstrating higher antitumor efficacy on MCF-7 cells in vitro. Furthermore, DOX-GO/IONP/PEI-gel intratumorally injected (i.t.) showed high antitumor efficacy on tumor-bearing mice in vivo, with no obvious toxicity. The antitumor efficacy was higher when combined with an alternating magnetic field (AMF), showing that DOX-GO/IONP/PEI-gel under AMF has great potential for cancer magnetic hyperthermia therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiali Zhu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China. Pharmacy College, Henan University of TCM, Zhengzhou, 450003, People's Republic of China
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Nanodrug-enhanced radiofrequency tumor ablation: effect of micellar or liposomal carrier on drug delivery and treatment efficacy. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102727. [PMID: 25133740 PMCID: PMC4136708 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 06/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine the effect of different drug-loaded nanocarriers (micelles and liposomes) on delivery and treatment efficacy for radiofrequency ablation (RFA) combined with nanodrugs. MATERIALS/METHODS Fischer 344 rats were used (n = 196). First, single subcutaneous R3230 tumors or normal liver underwent RFA followed by immediate administration of i.v. fluorescent beads (20, 100, and 500 nm), with fluorescent intensity measured at 4-24 hr. Next, to study carrier type on drug efficiency, RFA was combined with micellar (20 nm) or liposomal (100 nm) preparations of doxorubicin (Dox; targeting HIF-1α) or quercetin (Qu; targeting HSP70). Animals received RFA alone, RFA with Lipo-Dox or Mic-Dox (1 mg i.v., 15 min post-RFA), and RFA with Lipo-Qu or Mic-Qu given 24 hr pre- or 15 min post-RFA (0.3 mg i.v.). Tumor coagulation and HIF-1α or HSP70 expression were assessed 24 hr post-RFA. Third, the effect of RFA combined with i.v. Lipo-Dox, Mic-Dox, Lipo-Qu, or Mic-Qu (15 min post-RFA) compared to RFA alone on tumor growth and animal endpoint survival was evaluated. Finally, drug uptake was compared between RFA/Lipo-Dox and RFA/Mic-Dox at 4-72 hr. RESULTS Smaller 20 nm beads had greater deposition and deeper tissue penetration in both tumor (100 nm/500 nm) and liver (100 nm) (p<0.05). Mic-Dox and Mic-Qu suppressed periablational HIF-1α or HSP70 rim thickness more than liposomal preparations (p<0.05). RFA/Mic-Dox had greater early (4 hr) intratumoral doxorubicin, but RFA/Lipo-Dox had progressively higher intratumoral doxorubicin at 24-72 hr post-RFA (p<0.04). No difference in tumor growth and survival was seen between RFA/Lipo-Qu and RFA/Mic-Qu. Yet, RFA/Lipo-Dox led to greater animal endpoint survival compared to RFA/Mic-Dox (p<0.03). CONCLUSION With RF ablation, smaller particle micelles have superior penetration and more effective local molecular modulation. However, larger long-circulating liposomal carriers can result in greater intratumoral drug accumulation over time and reduced tumor growth. Accordingly, different carriers provide specific advantages, which should be considered when formulating optimal combination therapies.
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