1
|
Tang L, Sabi MM, Fu M, Guan J, Wang Y, Xia T, Zheng K, Qu H, Han B. Host cell manipulation by microsporidia secreted effectors: Insights into intracellular pathogenesis. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2024:e13029. [PMID: 39030770 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.13029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/22/2024]
Abstract
Microsporidia are prolific producers of effector molecules, encompassing both proteins and nonproteinaceous effectors, such as toxins, small RNAs, and small peptides. These secreted effectors play a pivotal role in the pathogenicity of microsporidia, enabling them to subvert the host's innate immunity and co-opt metabolic pathways to fuel their own growth and proliferation. However, the genomes of microsporidia, despite falling within the size range of bacteria, exhibit significant reductions in both structural and physiological features, thereby affecting the repertoire of secretory effectors to varying extents. This review focuses on recent advances in understanding how microsporidia modulate host cells through the secretion of effectors, highlighting current challenges and proposed solutions in deciphering the complexities of microsporidial secretory effectors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liyuan Tang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Musa Makongoro Sabi
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Ming Fu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Jingyu Guan
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Yongliang Wang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Tian Xia
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Kai Zheng
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
| | - Hongnan Qu
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute, Shandong University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Bing Han
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Ji'nan, Shandong, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute, Shandong University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Senderskiy IV, Dolgikh VV, Ismatullaeva DA, Mirzakhodjaev BA, Nikitina AP, Pankratov DL. Treatment of Microsporidium Nosema bombycis Spores with the New Antiseptic M250 Helps to Avoid Bacterial and Fungal Contamination of Infected Cultures without Affecting Parasite Polar Tube Extrusion. Microorganisms 2024; 12:154. [PMID: 38257981 PMCID: PMC10819227 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12010154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Microsporidia are a group of widespread eukaryotic spore-forming intracellular parasites of great economic and scientific importance. Since microsporidia cannot be cultured outside of a host cell, the search for new antimicrosporidian drugs requires an effective antiseptic to sterilize microsporidian spores to infect cell lines. Here, we show that a new polyhexamethylene guanidine derivative M250, which is active against fungi and bacteria at a concentration of 0.5-1 mg/L, is more than 1000 times less effective against spores of the microsporidium Nosema bombycis, a highly virulent pathogen of the silkworm Bombyx mori (LC50 is 0.173%). Treatment of N. bombycis spores that were isolated non-sterilely from silkworm caterpillars with 0.1% M250 solution does not reduce the rate of spore polar tube extrusion. However, it completely prevents contamination of the Sf-900 III cell culture medium by microorganisms in the presence of antibiotics. The addition of untreated spores to the medium results in contamination, whether antibiotics are present or not. Since 0.1% M250 does not affect spore discharging, this compound may be promising for preventing bacterial and fungal contamination of microsporidia-infected cell cultures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Igor V. Senderskiy
- All-Russian Institute of Plant Protection, Podbelsky Chausse 3, 196608 Saint-Petersburg, Russia;
| | - Viacheslav V. Dolgikh
- All-Russian Institute of Plant Protection, Podbelsky Chausse 3, 196608 Saint-Petersburg, Russia;
| | - Diloram A. Ismatullaeva
- Scientific Research Institute of Sericulture, Ipakchi Str. 1, Tashkent 100069, Uzbekistan; (D.A.I.); (B.A.M.)
| | - Bakhtiyar A. Mirzakhodjaev
- Scientific Research Institute of Sericulture, Ipakchi Str. 1, Tashkent 100069, Uzbekistan; (D.A.I.); (B.A.M.)
| | - Anastasiia P. Nikitina
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, Pavlov First Saint-Petersburg State Medical University, L’vaTolstogo Str. 6-8, 197022 Saint-Petersburg, Russia; (A.P.N.); (D.L.P.)
| | - Danil L. Pankratov
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, Pavlov First Saint-Petersburg State Medical University, L’vaTolstogo Str. 6-8, 197022 Saint-Petersburg, Russia; (A.P.N.); (D.L.P.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ma M, Ling M, Huang Q, Xu Y, Yang X, Kyei B, Wang Q, Tang X, Shen Z, Zhang Y, Zhao G. Functional characterization of Nosema bombycis (microsporidia) trehalase 3. Parasitol Res 2023; 123:59. [PMID: 38112902 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-08082-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Nosema bombycis, an obligate intracellular parasite, is a single-celled eukaryote known to infect various tissues of silkworms, leading to the manifestation of pebrine. Trehalase, a glycosidase responsible for catalyzing the hydrolysis of trehalose into two glucose molecules, assumes a crucial role in thermal stress tolerance, dehydration, desiccation stress, and asexual development. Despite its recognized importance in these processes, the specific role of trehalase in N. bombycis remains uncertain. This investigation focused on exploring the functions of trehalase 3 in N. bombycis (NbTre3). Immunofluorescence analysis of mature (dormant) spores indicated that NbTre3 primarily localizes to the spore membrane or spore wall, suggesting a potential involvement in spore germination. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction results indicated that the transcriptional level of NbTre3 peaked at 6 h post N. bombycis infection, potentially contributing to energy storage for proliferation. Throughout the life cycle of N. bombycis within the host cell, NbTre3 was detected in sporoplasm during the proliferative stage rather than the sporulation stage. RNA interference experiments revealed a substantial decrease in the relative transcriptional level of NbTre3, accompanied by a certain reduction in the relative transcriptional level of Nb16S rRNA. These outcomes suggest that NbTre3 may play a role in the proliferation of N. bombycis. The application of the His pull-down technique identified 28 proteins interacting with NbTre3, predominantly originating from the host silkworm. This finding implies that NbTre3 may participate in the metabolism of the host cell, potentially utilizing the host cell's energy resources.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhen Ma
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Min Ling
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Qilong Huang
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yijie Xu
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xu Yang
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Bismark Kyei
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Qiang Wang
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
- The Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
- The Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement of Silkworm and Mulberry of Agricultural Ministry, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xudong Tang
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
- The Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
- The Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement of Silkworm and Mulberry of Agricultural Ministry, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhongyuan Shen
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
- The Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
- The Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement of Silkworm and Mulberry of Agricultural Ministry, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yiling Zhang
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
- The Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
- The Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement of Silkworm and Mulberry of Agricultural Ministry, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Guodong Zhao
- College of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
- The Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
- The Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement of Silkworm and Mulberry of Agricultural Ministry, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Žárský V, Karnkowska A, Boscaro V, Trznadel M, Whelan TA, Hiltunen-Thorén M, Onut-Brännström I, Abbott CL, Fast NM, Burki F, Keeling PJ. Contrasting outcomes of genome reduction in mikrocytids and microsporidians. BMC Biol 2023; 21:137. [PMID: 37280585 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-023-01635-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intracellular symbionts often undergo genome reduction, losing both coding and non-coding DNA in a process that ultimately produces small, gene-dense genomes with few genes. Among eukaryotes, an extreme example is found in microsporidians, which are anaerobic, obligate intracellular parasites related to fungi that have the smallest nuclear genomes known (except for the relic nucleomorphs of some secondary plastids). Mikrocytids are superficially similar to microsporidians: they are also small, reduced, obligate parasites; however, as they belong to a very different branch of the tree of eukaryotes, the rhizarians, such similarities must have evolved in parallel. Since little genomic data are available from mikrocytids, we assembled a draft genome of the type species, Mikrocytos mackini, and compared the genomic architecture and content of microsporidians and mikrocytids to identify common characteristics of reduction and possible convergent evolution. RESULTS At the coarsest level, the genome of M. mackini does not exhibit signs of extreme genome reduction; at 49.7 Mbp with 14,372 genes, the assembly is much larger and gene-rich than those of microsporidians. However, much of the genomic sequence and most (8075) of the protein-coding genes code for transposons, and may not contribute much of functional relevance to the parasite. Indeed, the energy and carbon metabolism of M. mackini share several similarities with those of microsporidians. Overall, the predicted proteome involved in cellular functions is quite reduced and gene sequences are extremely divergent. Microsporidians and mikrocytids also share highly reduced spliceosomes that have retained a strikingly similar subset of proteins despite having reduced independently. In contrast, the spliceosomal introns in mikrocytids are very different from those of microsporidians in that they are numerous, conserved in sequence, and constrained to an exceptionally narrow size range (all 16 or 17 nucleotides long) at the shortest extreme of known intron lengths. CONCLUSIONS Nuclear genome reduction has taken place many times and has proceeded along different routes in different lineages. Mikrocytids show a mix of similarities and differences with other extreme cases, including uncoupling the actual size of a genome with its functional reduction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vojtečh Žárský
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
| | - Anna Karnkowska
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 02-089, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Vittorio Boscaro
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada.
| | - Morelia Trznadel
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
| | - Thomas A Whelan
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
| | - Markus Hiltunen-Thorén
- Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University, Norbyv. 18D, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences, Stockholm University, SE-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ioana Onut-Brännström
- Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University, Norbyv. 18D, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, 0562, Oslo, Norway
| | - Cathryn L Abbott
- Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Nanaimo, BC, V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Naomi M Fast
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada
| | - Fabien Burki
- Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University, Norbyv. 18D, 752 36, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Patrick J Keeling
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, 3529-6270 University Boulevard, BC, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wu Y, Yu Y, Sun Q, Yu Y, Chen J, Li T, Meng X, Pan G, Zhou Z. A Putative TRAPα Protein of Microsporidia Nosema bombycis Exhibits Non-Canonical Alternative Polyadenylation in Transcripts. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9040407. [PMID: 37108862 PMCID: PMC10142623 DOI: 10.3390/jof9040407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Microsporidia are obligate intracellular eukaryotic parasites that have significantly reduced genomes and that have lost most of their introns. In the current study, we characterized a gene in microsporidia Nosema bombycis, annotated as TRAPα (HNbTRAPα). The homologous of TRAPα are a functional component of ER translocon and facilitates the initiation of protein translocation in a substrate-specific manner, which is conserved in animals but absent from most fungi. The coding sequence of HNbTRAPα consists of 2226 nucleotides, longer than the majority of homologs in microsporidia. A 3′ RACE analysis indicated that there were two mRNA isoforms resulting from non-canonical alternative polyadenylation (APA), and the polyadenylate tail was synthesized after the C951 or C1167 nucleotide, respectively. Indirect immunofluorescence analysis showed two different localization characteristics of HNbTRAPα, which are mainly located around the nuclear throughout the proliferation stage and co-localized with the nuclear in mature spores. This study demonstrated that the post-transcriptional regulation mechanism exists in Microsporidia and expands the mRNA isoform repertoire.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yujiao Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Ying Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Quan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Yixiang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Tian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Xianzhi Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Guoqing Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
- Correspondence: (G.P.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Zeyang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Beibei, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
- Key Laboratory of Conservation and Utilization of Pollinator Insect of the Upper Reaches of the Yangtze River (Co-Construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 400047, China
- Correspondence: (G.P.); (Z.Z.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Structural and Functional Annotation of Hypothetical Proteins from the Microsporidia Species Vittaforma corneae ATCC 50505 Using in silico Approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043507. [PMID: 36834914 PMCID: PMC9960886 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Microsporidia are spore-forming eukaryotes that are related to fungi but have unique traits that set them apart. They have compact genomes as a result of evolutionary gene loss associated with their complete dependency on hosts for survival. Despite having a relatively small number of genes, a disproportionately high percentage of the genes in microsporidia genomes code for proteins whose functions remain unknown (hypothetical proteins-HPs). Computational annotation of HPs has become a more efficient and cost-effective alternative to experimental investigation. This research developed a robust bioinformatics annotation pipeline of HPs from Vittaforma corneae, a clinically important microsporidian that causes ocular infections in immunocompromised individuals. Here, we describe various steps to retrieve sequences and homologs and to carry out physicochemical characterization, protein family classification, identification of motifs and domains, protein-protein interaction network analysis, and homology modelling using a variety of online resources. Classification of protein families produced consistent findings across platforms, demonstrating the accuracy of annotation utilizing in silico methods. A total of 162 out of 2034 HPs were fully annotated, with the bulk of them categorized as binding proteins, enzymes, or regulatory proteins. The protein functions of several HPs from Vittaforma corneae were accurately inferred. This improved our understanding of microsporidian HPs despite challenges related to the obligate nature of microsporidia, the absence of fully characterized genes, and the lack of homologous genes in other systems.
Collapse
|
7
|
Hu YW, Wang SH, Tang Y, Xie GQ, Ding YJ, Xu QY, Tang B, Zhang L, Wang SG. Suppression of yolk formation, oviposition and egg quality of locust (Locusta migratoria manilensis) infected by Paranosema locustae. Front Immunol 2022; 13:848267. [PMID: 35935997 PMCID: PMC9352533 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.848267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Locusta migratoria manilensis is one of the most important agricultural pests in China. The locust has high fecundity and consumes large quantities of food, causing severe damage to diverse crops such as corn, sorghum, and rice. Immunity against pathogens and reproductive success are two important components of individual fitness, and many insects have a trade-off between reproduction and immunity when resources are limited, which may be an important target for pest control. In this study, adult females L. migratoria manilensis were treated with different concentrations (5 × 106 spores/mL or 2 × 107 spores/mL) of the entomopathogenic fungus Paranosema locustae. Effects of input to immunity on reproduction were studied by measuring feeding amount, enzyme activity, vitellogenin (Vg) and vitellogenin receptor (VgR) production, ovary development, and oviposition amount. When infected by P. locustae, feeding rate and phenol oxidase and lysozyme activities increased, mRNA expression of Vg and VgR genes decreased, and yolk deposition was blocked. Weight of ovaries decreased, with significant decreases in egg, length and weight.Thus, locusts used nutritive input required for reproduction to resist invasion by microsporidia. This leads to a decrease in expression of Vg and VgR genes inhibited ovarian development, and greatly decreased total fecundity. P. locustae at 2 × 107 spores/mL had a more obvious inhibitory effect on the ovarian development in migratory locusts. This study provides a detailed trade-off between reproduction and immune input of the female, which provides a reliable basis to find pest targets for biological control from those trade-off processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yao-Wen Hu
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shao-Hua Wang
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ya Tang
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Guo-Qiang Xie
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yan-Juan Ding
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qing-Ye Xu
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bin Tang
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Long Zhang
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Shi-Gui Wang
- Hangzhou Key Laboratory of Animal Adaptation and Evolution, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Shi-Gui Wang,
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Heterologous expression of scFv fragment against Vairimorpha (Nosema) ceranae hexokinase in Sf9 cell culture inhibits microsporidia intracellular growth. J Invertebr Pathol 2022; 191:107755. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2022.107755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
|
9
|
Jespersen N, Monrroy L, Barandun J. Impact of Genome Reduction in Microsporidia. EXPERIENTIA SUPPLEMENTUM (2012) 2022; 114:1-42. [PMID: 35543997 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-93306-7_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Microsporidia represent an evolutionary outlier in the tree of life and occupy the extreme edge of the eukaryotic domain with some of their biological features. Many of these unicellular fungi-like organisms have reduced their genomic content to potentially the lowest limit. With some of the most compacted eukaryotic genomes, microsporidia are excellent model organisms to study reductive evolution and its functional consequences. While the growing number of sequenced microsporidian genomes have elucidated genome composition and organization, a recent increase in complementary post-genomic studies has started to shed light on the impacts of genome reduction in these unique pathogens. This chapter will discuss the biological framework enabling genome minimization and will use one of the most ancient and essential macromolecular complexes, the ribosome, to illustrate the effects of extreme genome reduction on a structural, molecular, and cellular level. We outline how reductive evolution in microsporidia has shaped DNA organization, the composition and function of the ribosome, and the complexity of the ribosome biogenesis process. Studying compacted mechanisms, processes, or macromolecular machines in microsporidia illuminates their unique lifestyle and provides valuable insights for comparative eukaryotic structural biology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Jespersen
- Department of Molecular Biology, The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Science for Life Laboratory, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Leonardo Monrroy
- Department of Molecular Biology, The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Science for Life Laboratory, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Jonas Barandun
- Department of Molecular Biology, The Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå Centre for Microbial Research (UCMR), Science for Life Laboratory, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Snow JW. Nosema apis and N. ceranae Infection in Honey bees: A Model for Host-Pathogen Interactions in Insects. EXPERIENTIA SUPPLEMENTUM (2012) 2022; 114:153-177. [PMID: 35544003 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-93306-7_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
There has been increased focus on the role of microbial attack as a potential cause of recent declines in the health of the western honey bee, Apis mellifera. The Nosema species, N. apis and N. ceranae, are microsporidian parasites that are pathogenic to honey bees, and infection by these species has been implicated as a key factor in honey bee losses. Honey bees infected with both Nosema spp. display significant changes in their biology at the cellular, tissue, and organismal levels impacting host metabolism, immune function, physiology, and behavior. Infected individuals lead to colony dysfunction and can contribute to colony disease in some circumstances. The means through which parasite growth and tissue pathology in the midgut lead to the dramatic physiological and behavioral changes at the organismal level are only partially understood. In addition, we possess only a limited appreciation of the elements of the host environment that impact pathogen growth and development. Critical for answering these questions is a mechanistic understanding of the host and pathogen machinery responsible for host-pathogen interactions. A number of approaches are already being used to elucidate these mechanisms, and promising new tools may allow for gain- and loss-of-function experiments to accelerate future progress.
Collapse
|
11
|
Luo J, He Q, Xu JZ, Xu C, Han YZ, Gao HL, Meng XZ, Pan GQ, Li T, Zhou ZY. Microsporidia infection upregulates host energy metabolism but maintains ATP homeostasis. J Invertebr Pathol 2021; 186:107596. [PMID: 33910037 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2021.107596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microsporidia are a group of obligate intracellular parasites which lack mitochondria and have highly reduced genomes. Therefore, they are unable to produce ATP via the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Instead, they have evolved strategies to obtain and manipulate host metabolism to acquire nutrients. However, little is known about how microsporidia modulate host energy metabolisms. Here, we present the first targeted metabolomics study to investigate changes in host energy metabolism as a result of infection by a microsporidian. Metabolites of silkworm embryo cell (BmE) were measured 48 h post infection by Nosema bombycis. Thirty metabolites were detected, nine of which were upregulated and mainly involved in glycolysis (glucose 6-phosphate, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate) and the TCA cycle (succinate, α-ketoglutarate, cis-aconitate, isocitrate, citrate, fumarate). Pathway enrichment analysis suggested that the upregulated metabolites could promote the synthesization of nucleotides, fatty acids, and amino acids by the host. ATP concentration in host cells, however, was not significantly changed by the infection. This ATP homeostasis was also found in Encephalitozoon hellem infected mouse macrophage RAW264.7, human monocytic leukemia THP-1, human embryonic kidney 293, and human foreskin fibroblast cells. These findings suggest that microsporidia have evolved strategies to maintain levels of ATP in the host while stimulating metabolic pathways to provide additional nutrients for the parasite.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Qiang He
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Jin-Zhi Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Chen Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Yin-Ze Han
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Hai-Long Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Xian-Zhi Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Guo-Qing Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Tian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.
| | - Ze-Yang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 400047, China.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Shakeel M, Du J, Li SW, Zhou YJ, Sarwar N, Bukhari SAH. Characterization, Knockdown and Parental Effect of Hexokinase Gene of Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Revealed by RNA Interference. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11111258. [PMID: 33114530 PMCID: PMC7693289 DOI: 10.3390/genes11111258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hexokinase (HK) is a key enzyme in chitin biosynthesis in insects and plays an important role in development and energy regulation. It also performs a crucial role in the synthesis of Glucose-6-phosphate and its putative functions are studied via injection of dsRNA corresponding to the hexokinase gene from Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (CmHK). This study was designed to analyze the characteristics and expression patterns of HK-related genes in various tissues of C. medinalis at different developmental stages. The CmHK ORF is a 1359 bp in length, encoding a protein of 452 amino acids, with homology and cluster analysis showing that CmHK shares an 85.11% sequence similarity with hexokinase from Ostrinia furnacalis.CmHK was highly expressed in the ovary and in the fifth instar larvae. Injection of dsCmHK significantly suppressed mRNA expression (73.6%) 120 h post-dsRNA injection as compared to a control group. The results demonstrated an increased incidence of larval and pupal mortality of 80% and 78%, respectively, with significant variation in the sex ratio between males (68.33%) and females (35%), overt larval deformities, and a reduction in average weight gain observed 120 h post-dsRNA injection. In addition, dsCmHK-injected C. medinalis showed a significant reduction in ovulation per female and larval hatching rate, along with increased larval and pupal mortality and variation in male and female emergence over three generations (G1, G2, and G3). Taken together, the outcomes of the study provide a foundation to study gene function and a new dimension to control C. medinalis by transgenic RNAi technology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Shakeel
- Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of Mountainous Regions, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China; (M.S.); (J.D.); (Y.-J.Z.)
| | - Juan Du
- Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of Mountainous Regions, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China; (M.S.); (J.D.); (Y.-J.Z.)
| | - Shang-Wei Li
- Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of Mountainous Regions, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China; (M.S.); (J.D.); (Y.-J.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-137-6506-6957
| | - Yuan-Jin Zhou
- Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of Mountainous Regions, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, China; (M.S.); (J.D.); (Y.-J.Z.)
| | - Naeem Sarwar
- Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan; (N.S.); (S.A.H.B.)
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Tamim El Jarkass H, Reinke AW. The ins and outs of host-microsporidia interactions during invasion, proliferation and exit. Cell Microbiol 2020; 22:e13247. [PMID: 32748538 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microsporidia are a large group of fungal-related obligate intracellular parasites. They are responsible for infections in humans as well as in agriculturally and environmentally important animals. Although microsporidia are abundant in nature, many of the molecular mechanisms employed during infection have remained enigmatic. In this review, we highlight recent work showing how microsporidia invade, proliferate and exit from host cells. During invasion, microsporidia use spore wall and polar tube proteins to interact with host receptors and adhere to the host cell surface. In turn, the host has multiple defence mechanisms to prevent and eliminate these infections. Microsporidia encode numerous transporters and steal host nutrients to facilitate proliferation within host cells. They also encode many secreted proteins which may modulate host metabolism and inhibit host cell defence mechanisms. Spores exit the host in a non-lytic manner that is dependent on host actin and endocytic recycling proteins. Together, this work provides a fuller picture of the mechanisms that these fascinating organisms use to infect their hosts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Aaron W Reinke
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Wadi L, Reinke AW. Evolution of microsporidia: An extremely successful group of eukaryotic intracellular parasites. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008276. [PMID: 32053705 PMCID: PMC7017984 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lina Wadi
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Aaron W. Reinke
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Pan BY, Li GY, Wu Y, Zhou ZS, Zhou M, Li C. Glucose Utilization in the Regulation of Chitin Synthesis in Brown Planthopper. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2019; 19:5574393. [PMID: 31557289 PMCID: PMC6761884 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iez081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) and hexokinase (HK) are two key enzymes in the glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways, which catalyze the synthesis and degradation of glucose in insects, respectively. G6Pase and HK play an important role in insect growth by regulating the metabolism of glucose, leading to the efficient metabolism of other macromolecules. However, it is unclear whether these genes could be investigated for pest control through their actions on chitin metabolism. We studied the potential functions of G6Pase and HK genes in the regulation of chitin metabolism pathways by RNAi technology. Interference with G6Pase expression did not affect trehalose and chitin metabolism pathways in brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stål). However, knockdown of the HK gene resulted in a significant decrease of expression of genes associated with the trehalose metabolic pathway but had no significant effect on trehalase activity, trehalose content, or glucogen content. Additionally, HK knockdown resulting in downregulation of the genes involved in chitin metabolism in the brown planthopper. These insects also showed wing deformities and difficulty in molting to varying degrees. We suggest that the silencing of HK expression directly inhibited the decomposition of glucose, leading to impaired chitin synthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bi-Ying Pan
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, P.R. China
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Guo-Yong Li
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, P.R. China
| | - Yan Wu
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, P.R. China
| | - Zhong-Shi Zhou
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, P.R. China
| | - Min Zhou
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Can Li
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Rare Animal and Economic Insect of the Mountainous Region, Department of Biology and Engineering of Environment, Guiyang University, Guiyang, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Dolgikh VV, Tsarev AA, Timofeev SA, Zhuravlyov VS. Heterologous overexpression of active hexokinases from microsporidia Nosema bombycis and Nosema ceranae confirms their ability to phosphorylate host glucose. Parasitol Res 2019; 118:1511-1518. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06279-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
|
17
|
Encephalitozoon cuniculi and Vittaforma corneae (Phylum Microsporidia) inhibit staurosporine-induced apoptosis in human THP-1 macrophages in vitro. Parasitology 2018; 146:569-579. [PMID: 30486909 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182018001968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Obligately intracellular microsporidia regulate their host cell life cycles, including apoptosis, but this has not been evaluated in phagocytic host cells such as macrophages that can facilitate infection but also can be activated to kill microsporidia. We examined two biologically dissimilar human-infecting microsporidia species, Encephalitozoon cuniculi and Vittaforma corneae, for their effects on staurosporine-induced apoptosis in the human macrophage-differentiated cell line, THP1. Apoptosis was measured after exposure of THP-1 cells to live and dead mature organisms via direct fluorometric measurement of Caspase 3, colorimetric and fluorometric TUNEL assays, and mRNA gene expression profiles using Apoptosis RT2 Profiler PCR Array. Both species of microsporidia modulated the intrinsic apoptosis pathway. In particular, live E. cuniculi spores inhibited staurosporine-induced apoptosis as well as suppressed pro-apoptosis genes and upregulated anti-apoptosis genes more broadly than V. corneae. Exposure to dead spores induced an opposite effect. Vittaforma corneae, however, also induced inflammasome activation via Caspases 1 and 4. Of the 84 apoptosis-related genes assayed, 42 (i.e. 23 pro-apoptosis, nine anti-apoptosis, and 10 regulatory) genes were more affected including those encoding members of the Bcl2 family, caspases and their regulators, and members of the tumour necrosis factor (TNF)/TNF receptor R superfamily.
Collapse
|
18
|
Abstract
AbstractHexokinase (HK) is a core glycolytic enzyme of Microsporidia which regulates host cell metabolic processes. The goal of the present study was to test for the utility of HK for molecular phylogenetics, species identification and molecular detection of microsporidia in infected insects. HK sequence-based reconstructions were essentially similar to those based upon largest subunit RNA polymerase (RPB1) gene sequences, as well as previously published rRNA gene and genome-based trees. Comparing HK sequences allowed clear differentiation of closely related taxa, such as Nosema bombycis and Nosema pyrausta. In Nosema ceranae, unique SNPs were found for an isolate from wild colonies of the Burzyan dark honey bee as compared with the isolates from domesticated European honey bee. Similarly, in Encephalitozoon cuniculi, HK was as effective as RPB1 for discrimination of isolates belonging to different ITS genotypes. Amplification using species-specific primers flanking short fragments at the 3′-end of HK gene showed the presence of infection in insect tissues infected with N. pyrausta, Nosema ceranae and Paranosema (Antonospora) locustae. For the latter parasite species, HK expression was also demonstrated at early stages of infection using total mRNA extracts of locust larvae. These results indicate the suitability of HK as a novel tool for molecular genetic studies of Microsporidia.
Collapse
|
19
|
Huang Y, Zheng S, Mei X, Yu B, Sun B, Li B, Wei J, Chen J, Li T, Pan G, Zhou Z, Li C. A secretory hexokinase plays an active role in the proliferation of Nosema bombycis. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5658. [PMID: 30258733 PMCID: PMC6152459 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The microsporidian Nosema bombycis is an obligate intracellular parasite of Bombyx mori, that lost its intact tricarboxylic acid cycle and mitochondria during evolution but retained its intact glycolysis pathway. N. bombycis hexokinase (NbHK) is not only a rate-limiting enzyme of glycolysis but also a secretory protein. Indirect immunofluorescence assays and recombinant HK overexpressed in BmN cells showed that NbHK localized in the nucleus and cytoplasm of host cell during the meront stage. When N. bombycis matured, NbHK tended to concentrate at the nuclei of host cells. Furthermore, the transcriptional profile of NbHK implied it functioned during N. bombycis’ proliferation stages. A knock-down of NbHK effectively suppressed the proliferation of N. bombycis indicating that NbHK is an important protein for parasite to control its host.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yukang Huang
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Shiyi Zheng
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Xionge Mei
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Bin Yu
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Bin Sun
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Boning Li
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Junhong Wei
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China.,Southwest University, Key Laboratory for Sericulture Functional Genomics and Biotechnology of Agricultural Ministry, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China.,Southwest University, Key Laboratory for Sericulture Functional Genomics and Biotechnology of Agricultural Ministry, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Tian Li
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China.,Southwest University, Key Laboratory for Sericulture Functional Genomics and Biotechnology of Agricultural Ministry, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Guoqing Pan
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China.,Southwest University, Key Laboratory for Sericulture Functional Genomics and Biotechnology of Agricultural Ministry, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Zeyang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China.,Southwest University, Key Laboratory for Sericulture Functional Genomics and Biotechnology of Agricultural Ministry, Chongqing, Chongqing, China.,Chongqing Normal University, College of Life Sciences, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Chunfeng Li
- State Key Laboratory Of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, Chongqing, China.,Southwest University, Key Laboratory for Sericulture Functional Genomics and Biotechnology of Agricultural Ministry, Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Wijayawardene NN, Pawłowska J, Letcher PM, Kirk PM, Humber RA, Schüßler A, Wrzosek M, Muszewska A, Okrasińska A, Istel Ł, Gęsiorska A, Mungai P, Lateef AA, Rajeshkumar KC, Singh RV, Radek R, Walther G, Wagner L, Walker C, Wijesundara DSA, Papizadeh M, Dolatabadi S, Shenoy BD, Tokarev YS, Lumyong S, Hyde KD. Notes for genera: basal clades of Fungi (including Aphelidiomycota, Basidiobolomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Calcarisporiellomycota, Caulochytriomycota, Chytridiomycota, Entomophthoromycota, Glomeromycota, Kickxellomycota, Monoblepharomycota, Mortierellomycota, Mucoromycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Olpidiomycota, Rozellomycota and Zoopagomycota). FUNGAL DIVERS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s13225-018-0409-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
21
|
Ferguson S, Lucocq J. The invasive cell coat at the microsporidian Trachipleistophora hominis-host cell interface contains secreted hexokinases. Microbiologyopen 2018; 8:e00696. [PMID: 30051624 PMCID: PMC6460350 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites causing significant disease in humans and economically important animals. In parallel to their extreme genetic reduction, Microsporidia have evolved novel mechanisms for exploiting host metabolism. A number of microsporidians confer secretion of otherwise cytosolic proteins by coding for signal peptides that direct entry into the endoplasmic reticulum. The human pathogen Trachipleistophora hominis encodes for four hexokinases, three of which have signal peptides at the N‐terminus. Here, we localized hexokinase 2 and hexokinase 3 through developmental stages of T. hominis using light and electron microscopy. Both proteins were concentrated in an extracellular coat previously termed the plaque matrix (PQM). The PQM (containing hexokinases) was morphologically dynamic, infiltrating the host cytoplasm predominantly during replicative stages. Throughout development the PQM interacted closely with endoplasmic reticulum that was demonstrated to be active in membrane protein biosynthesis and export. The impact of hexokinase on the host metabolism was probed using the fluorescent analog of glucose, 2‐NBDG, which displayed spatially restricted increases in signal intensity at the parasite/vacuole surface, coincident with hexokinase/PQM distribution. Gross metabolic aberrations, measured using metabolic profiling with the Seahorse XF Analyzer, were not detectable in mixed stage cocultures. Overall, these results highlight a role for the extended cell coat of T. hominis in host–parasite interactions, within which secreted hexokinases may work as part of a metabolic machine to increase glycolytic capacity or ATP generation close to the parasite surface.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Ferguson
- Structural Cell Biology Group, School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - John Lucocq
- Structural Cell Biology Group, School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Pan G, Bao J, Ma Z, Song Y, Han B, Ran M, Li C, Zhou Z. Invertebrate host responses to microsporidia infections. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 83:104-113. [PMID: 29428490 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Microsporidia are a group of fungi-like intracellular and unicellular parasites, which infect nearly all animals. As "master parasites", over 1400 microsporidian species have been described to date. Microsporidia infections in economical invertebrates (e.g., silkworm, shrimp) cause huge financial losses, while other microsporidia infections in daphnia, nematode, locust, honeybee and mosquito play important roles in the regulation of their population size. Research investigating invertebrate host responses following microsporidia infections has yielded numerous interesting results, especially pertaining to the innate immune response to these pathogens. In this review, we comparatively summarize the invertebrate host responses to various microsporidia infections. We discuss numerous critical events in host responses including ubiquitin-mediated resistance, production of reactive oxygen species, melanization and innate immune pathways, and the increased basic metabolism and the accumulation of juvenile hormone in infected hosts. Recent studies progressing our understanding of microsporidia infection are also highlighted. Collectively, these advances shed more light on general rules of invertebrate host immune responses and pathogenesis mechanisms of microsporidia, and concurrently offer valuable clues for further research on the crosstalk between hosts and intracellular pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guoqing Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, PR China
| | - Jialing Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, PR China
| | - Zhengang Ma
- College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, PR China
| | - Yue Song
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, PR China
| | - Bing Han
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, PR China
| | - Maoshuang Ran
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, PR China
| | - Chunfeng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, PR China
| | - Zeyang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, PR China; College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Bernardo MA, Singer MS. Parasite-altered feeding behavior in insects: integrating functional and mechanistic research frontiers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 220:2848-2857. [PMID: 28814608 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.143800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Research on parasite-altered feeding behavior in insects is contributing to an emerging literature that considers possible adaptive consequences of altered feeding behavior for the host or the parasite. Several recent ecoimmunological studies show that insects can adaptively alter their foraging behavior in response to parasitism. Another body of recent work shows that infection by parasites can change the behavior of insect hosts to benefit the parasite; manipulations of host feeding behavior may be part of this phenomenon. Here, we address both the functional and the underlying physiological frontiers of parasite-altered feeding behavior in order to spur research that better integrates the two. Functional categories of parasite-altered behavior that are adaptive for the host include prophylaxis, therapy and compensation, while host manipulation is adaptive for the parasite. To better understand and distinguish prophylaxis, therapy and compensation, further study of physiological feedbacks affecting host sensory systems is especially needed. For host manipulation in particular, research on mechanisms by which parasites control host feedbacks will be important to integrate with functional approaches. We see this integration as critical to advancing the field of parasite-altered feeding behavior, which may be common in insects and consequential for human and environmental health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael S Singer
- Department of Biology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT 06105, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Chen L, Li R, You Y, Zhang K, Zhang L. A Novel Spore Wall Protein from Antonospora locustae (Microsporidia: Nosematidae) Contributes to Sporulation. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2017; 64:779-791. [PMID: 28277606 PMCID: PMC5697631 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Revised: 02/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites, existing in a wide variety of animal hosts. Here, we reported AlocSWP2, a novel protein identified from the spore wall of Antonospora locustae (formerly, Nosema locustae, and synonym, Paranosema locustae), containing four cysteines that are conserved among the homologues of several Microspodian pathogens in insects and mammals. AlocSWP2 was detected in the wall of mature spores via indirect immunofluorescence assay. In addition, immunocytochemistry localization experiments showed that the protein was observed in the wall of sporoblasts, sporonts, and meronts during sporulation within the host body, also in the wall of mature spores. AlocSWP2 was not detected in the fat body of infected locust until the 9th day after inoculating spores via RT‐PCR experiments. Furthermore, the survival percentage of infected locusts injected with dsRNA of AlocSWP2 on the 15th, 16th, and 17th days after inoculation with microsporidian were significantly higher than those of infected locusts without dsRNA treatment. Conversely, the amount of spores in locusts infected with A. locustae after treated with RNAi AlocSWP2 was significantly lower than those of infected locusts without RNAi of this gene. This novel spore wall protein from A. locustae may be involved in sporulation, thus contributing to host mortality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Longxin Chen
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China.,Molecular Biology Laboratory, Zhengzhou Normal University, Zhengzhou, 450044, China
| | - Runting Li
- Molecular Biology Laboratory, Zhengzhou Normal University, Zhengzhou, 450044, China
| | - Yinwei You
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China.,Bio-tech Research Center, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, 250100, China
| | - Kun Zhang
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Long Zhang
- Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Heterologous expression of Paranosema (Antonospora) locustae hexokinase in lepidopteran, Sf9, cells is followed by accumulation of the microsporidian protein in insect cell nuclei. J Invertebr Pathol 2017; 143:104-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
|
26
|
Reinke AW, Balla KM, Bennett EJ, Troemel ER. Identification of microsporidia host-exposed proteins reveals a repertoire of rapidly evolving proteins. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14023. [PMID: 28067236 PMCID: PMC5423893 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogens use a variety of secreted and surface proteins to interact with and manipulate their hosts, but a systematic approach for identifying such proteins has been lacking. To identify these ‘host-exposed' proteins, we used spatially restricted enzymatic tagging followed by mass spectrometry analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans infected with two species of Nematocida microsporidia. We identified 82 microsporidia proteins inside of intestinal cells, including several pathogen proteins in the nucleus. These microsporidia proteins are enriched in targeting signals, are rapidly evolving and belong to large Nematocida-specific gene families. We also find that large, species-specific families are common throughout microsporidia species. Our data suggest that the use of a large number of rapidly evolving species-specific proteins represents a common strategy for microsporidia to interact with their hosts. The unbiased method described here for identifying potential pathogen effectors represents a powerful approach to study a broad range of pathogens. Unbiased identification of proteins from pathogens that are exposed to a host can provide insight into host–pathogen interaction. Here, the authors use an enzymatic tagging method and mass spectrometry to identify rapidly evolving Nematocida microsporidia proteins when infecting C. elegans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron W Reinke
- Division of Biological Sciences, Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Keir M Balla
- Division of Biological Sciences, Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Eric J Bennett
- Division of Biological Sciences, Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Emily R Troemel
- Division of Biological Sciences, Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Liu H, Li M, He X, Cai S, He X, Lu X. Transcriptome sequencing and characterization of ungerminated and germinated spores of Nosema bombycis. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2016; 48:246-56. [PMID: 26837419 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmv140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2015] [Accepted: 11/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nosema bombycis is an obligate intracellular parasitic fungus that utilizes a distinctive mechanism to infect Bombyx mori. Germination, an indispensible process through which microsporidia infect the host cells, is regarded as a key developmental turning point for microsporidia from dormant state to reproduction state. Thus, elucidating the transcriptome changes before and after germination is crucial for parasite control. However, the molecular basis of germination of microsporidia remains unknown. To investigate this germination process, the transcriptome of N. bombycis ungerminated spores and germinated spores were sequenced and analyzed. More than 60 million high-quality transcript reads were generated from these two groups using RNA-Seq technology. After assembly, 2756 and 2690 unigenes were identified, respectively, and subsequently annotated based on known proteins. After analysis of differentially expressed genes, 66 genes were identified to be differentially expressed (P ≤ 0.05) between these two groups. A protein phosphatase-associated gene was first identified to be significantly up-regulated as determined by RNA-Seq and immunoblot analysis, indicating that dephosphorylation might potentially contribute to microsporidia germination. The DEGs that encode proteins involved in glycometabolism, spore wall proteins and ricin B lectin of N. bombycis were also analyzed. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses revealed genes responsible for some specific biological functions and processes. The datasets generated in this study provide a basic characterization of the transcriptome changes in N. bombycis during germination. The analysis of transcriptome data and identification of certain functional genes which are robust candidate genes related to germination will help to provide a deep understanding of spore germination and invasion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Han Liu
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Mingqian Li
- Tongde Hospital of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xinyi He
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Shunfeng Cai
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiangkang He
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xingmeng Lu
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Pathology, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Corradi N. Microsporidia: Eukaryotic Intracellular Parasites Shaped by Gene Loss and Horizontal Gene Transfers. Annu Rev Microbiol 2015. [PMID: 26195306 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-091014-104136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Microsporidia are eukaryotic parasites of many animals that appear to have adapted to an obligate intracellular lifestyle by modifying the morphology and content of their cells. Living inside other cells, they have lost many, or all, metabolic functions, resulting in genomes that are always gene poor and often very small. The minute content of microsporidian genomes led many to assume that these parasites are biochemically static and uninteresting. However, recent studies have demonstrated that these organisms can be surprisingly complex and dynamic. In this review I detail the most significant recent advances in microsporidian genomics and discuss how these have affected our understanding of many biological aspects of these peculiar eukaryotic intracellular pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Corradi
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5;
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Desjardins CA, Sanscrainte ND, Goldberg JM, Heiman D, Young S, Zeng Q, Madhani HD, Becnel JJ, Cuomo CA. Contrasting host-pathogen interactions and genome evolution in two generalist and specialist microsporidian pathogens of mosquitoes. Nat Commun 2015; 6:7121. [PMID: 25968466 PMCID: PMC4435813 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms8121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Obligate intracellular pathogens depend on their host for growth yet must also evade detection by host defenses. Here we investigate host adaptation in two Microsporidia, the specialist Edhazardia aedis and the generalist Vavraia culicis, pathogens of disease vector mosquitoes. Genomic analysis and deep RNA-Seq across infection time courses reveal fundamental differences between these pathogens. E. aedis retains enhanced cell surface modification and signalling capacity, upregulating protein trafficking and secretion dynamically during infection. V. culicis is less dependent on its host for basic metabolites and retains a subset of spliceosomal components, with a transcriptome broadly focused on growth and replication. Transcriptional profiling of mosquito immune responses reveals that response to infection by E. aedis differs dramatically depending on the mode of infection, and that antimicrobial defensins may play a general role in mosquito defense against Microsporidia. This analysis illuminates fundamentally different evolutionary paths and host interplay of specialist and generalist pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Neil D Sanscrainte
- USDA, ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 SW 23rd Drive, Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | | | - David Heiman
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Sarah Young
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Qiandong Zeng
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Hiten D Madhani
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
| | - James J Becnel
- USDA, ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 SW 23rd Drive, Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Christina A Cuomo
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Microsporidia-host interactions. Curr Opin Microbiol 2015; 26:10-6. [PMID: 25847674 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2015.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Microsporidia comprise one of the largest groups of obligate intracellular pathogens and can infect virtually all animals, but host response to these fungal-related microbes has been poorly understood. Several new studies of the host transcriptional response to microsporidia infection have found infection-induced regulation of genes involved in innate immunity, ubiquitylation, metabolism, and hormonal signaling. In addition, microsporidia have recently been shown to exploit host recycling endocytosis for exit from intestinal cells, and to interact with host degradation pathways. Microsporidia infection has also been shown to profoundly affect behavior in insect hosts. Altogether, these and other recent findings are providing much-needed insight into the underlying mechanisms of microsporidia interaction with host animals.
Collapse
|