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Kamble NM, Senevirathne A, Koh HB, Lee JI, Lee JH. Self-destructing Salmonella via temperature induced gene E of phage PhiX174 improves influenza HA DNA vaccine immune protection against H1N1 infection in mice model. J Immunol Methods 2019; 472:7-15. [PMID: 31175847 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2019.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The delivery of DNA vaccines is the principle impediment for implementation of DNA vaccination on a mass scale. In this study, we report a temperature induced conditionally expressed phage PhiX174 gene E mediated lysis of Salmonella under in vivo conditions that can increase the immunogenicity of a DNA vaccine delivered via Salmonella carrier system. We electroporated gene E encoding lysis plasmid pJHL187 along with the pcDNA-HA plasmid encoding H1N1 HA into attenuated Salmonella Typhimurium, strain JOL1893. Using C57BL/6 mice as the model, we showed that the mice intragastrically vaccinated with JOL1893 induced significant production of HA-specific humoral and cell mediated immune responses compared to the JOL1837, which carry pcDNA-HA plasmid alone. Furthermore, mice vaccinated with JOL1893 vaccine were fully protected against the lethal H1N1 challenge compared to the JOL1837 strain, which showed 90% protection only. However, none of the animals survived treated with either the PBS or the Salmonella carrying empty vector. Taken together, our results indicate that mucosal immunization with conditional lysis enabled live attenuated S. Typhimurium as a DNA vaccine carrier can induce efficient systemic and mucosal immune responses, and improves immune protection against a highly pathogenic H1N1 infection in mice model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitin Machindra Kamble
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonbuk National University, Iksan Campus, 54596, Republic of Korea
| | - Amal Senevirathne
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonbuk National University, Iksan Campus, 54596, Republic of Korea
| | - Hong Bum Koh
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Il Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - John Hwa Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chonbuk National University, Iksan Campus, 54596, Republic of Korea.
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2
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Xiao YL, Ren L, Zhang X, Qi L, Kash JC, Xiao Y, Wu F, Wang J, Taubenberger JK. Deep Sequencing of H7N9 Influenza A Viruses from 16 Infected Patients from 2013 to 2015 in Shanghai Reveals Genetic Diversity and Antigenic Drift. mSphere 2018; 3:e00462-18. [PMID: 30232169 PMCID: PMC6147129 DOI: 10.1128/mspheredirect.00462-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) infections are a major public health concern, including annual epidemics, epizootic outbreaks, and pandemics. A significant IAV epizootic outbreak was the H7N9 avian influenza A outbreak in China, which was first detected in 2013 and which has spread over 5 waves from 2013 to 2017, causing human infections in many different Chinese provinces. Here, RNA from primary clinical throat swab samples from 20 H7N9-infected local patients with different clinical outcomes, who were admitted and treated at one hospital in Shanghai, China, from April 2013 to April 2015, was analyzed. Whole-transcriptome amplification, with positive enrichment of IAV RNA, was performed, all 20 samples were subjected to deep sequencing, and data from 16 samples were analyzed in detail. Many single-nucleotide polymorphisms, including ones not previously reported, and many nonsynonymous changes that could affect hemagglutinin head and stalk antibody binding epitopes were observed. Minor populations representing viral quasispecies, including nonsynonymous hemagglutinin changes shared by antigenically variant H7N9 clades identified in the most recent wave of H7N9 infections in 2016 to 2017, were also identified.IMPORTANCE H7N9 subtype avian influenza viruses caused infections in over 1,400 humans from 2013 to 2017 and resulted in almost 600 deaths. It is important to understand how avian influenza viruses infect and cause disease in humans and to assess their potential for efficient person-to-person transmission. In this study, we used deep sequencing of primary clinical material to assess the evolution and potential for human adaptation of H7N9 influenza viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Li Xiao
- Viral Pathogenesis and Evolution Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Lili Ren
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens and Christophe Mérieux Laboratory, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xi Zhang
- Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Qi
- Viral Pathogenesis and Evolution Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - John C Kash
- Viral Pathogenesis and Evolution Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Yan Xiao
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens and Christophe Mérieux Laboratory, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Fan Wu
- Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianwei Wang
- MOH Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens and Christophe Mérieux Laboratory, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jeffery K Taubenberger
- Viral Pathogenesis and Evolution Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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3
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Abstract
Sequence and structure space are nowadays sufficiently large that we can use computational methods to model the structure of proteins based on sequence similarity alone. Not only useful as a standalone tool, homology modelling has also had a transformative effect on the ease with which we can solve crystal structures and electron density maps. Another technique-molecular dynamics-aims to model protein structures from first principles and, thanks to increases in computational power, is slowly becoming a viable tool for studying protein complexes. Finally, the prediction of protein assembly pathways from three-dimensional structures of complexes is also now becoming possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan N Wells
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
| | - L Therese Bergendahl
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Joseph A Marsh
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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4
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Honda-Okubo Y, Rajapaksha H, Sajkov D, Gordon D, Cox MMJ, Petrovsky N. Panblok-H1+advax H1N1/2009pdm vaccine: Insights into rapid development of a delta inulin adjuvanted recombinant pandemic influenza vaccine. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2017; 13:1-11. [PMID: 28301280 PMCID: PMC5489286 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2017.1279765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Timely vaccine supply is critical during influenza pandemics but is impeded by current virus-based manufacturing methods. The 2009 H1N1/2009pdm 'swine flu' pandemic reinforced the need for innovation in pandemic vaccine design. We report on insights gained during rapid development of a pandemic vaccine based on recombinant haemagglutinin (rHA) formulated with Advax™ delta inulin adjuvant (Panblok-H1/Advax). Panblok-H1/Advax was designed and manufactured within 1 month of the pandemic declaration by WHO and successfully entered human clinical testing in under 3 months from first isolation and sequencing of the novel pandemic virus, requiring several major challenges to be overcome. Panblok-H1/Advax successfully induced neutralising antibodies against the pandemic strain, but also induced cross-neutralising antibodies in a subset of subjects against an H1N1 strain (A/Puerto Rico/8/34) derived from the 1918 Spanish flu, highlighting the possibility to use Advax to induce more broadly cross-protective antibody responses. Interestingly, the rHA from H1N1/2009pdm exhibited variants in the receptor binding domain that had a major impact on receptor binding and hemagglutination ability. We used an in silico structural modeling approach to better understand the unusual behavior of the novel hemagglutinin, thereby demonstrating the power of computational modeling approaches for rapid characterization of new pandemic viruses. While challenges remain in ensuring ultrafast vaccine access for the entire population in response to future pandemics, the adjuvanted recombinant Panblok-H1/Advax vaccine proved its utility during a real-life pandemic situation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshikazu Honda-Okubo
- a Vaxine Pty Ltd, Flinders Medical Centre , Adelaide , Australia.,b Department of Endocrinology , Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia
| | - Harinda Rajapaksha
- a Vaxine Pty Ltd, Flinders Medical Centre , Adelaide , Australia.,b Department of Endocrinology , Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia
| | - Dimitar Sajkov
- c Australian Respiratory and Sleep Medicine Institute , Adelaide , Australia
| | - David Gordon
- d Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Department , Flinders Medical Centre , Adelaide , Australia
| | | | - Nikolai Petrovsky
- a Vaxine Pty Ltd, Flinders Medical Centre , Adelaide , Australia.,b Department of Endocrinology , Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia
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5
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Yang HT, Yang H, Chiang JH, Wang SJ. Translating genomic sequences into antibody efficacy and safety against influenza toward clinical trial outcomes: a case study. Drug Discov Today 2016; 21:1664-1671. [PMID: 27319290 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2016.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Antibodies (Abs) are regarded as a newly emerging form of therapeutics that can provide passive protection against influenza. Although the application of genomics in clinics has increased dramatically, the number of therapeutics available for the treatment of many diseases remains insufficient. To translate genomics into medicines, we established a computational workflow to reconstruct 3D structures of hemagglutinin [HA, antigen (Ag)] and Ab for modeling Ab-HA interactions, based on their protein sequences. This platform was capable of testing the validity of bioinformatics predictions against viral neutralization titers for four Abs: CH65, CR8020, C05, and 5J8. By considering off-target effects, CR8020, the only successful candidate in clinical trials, was prospectively identified. Our approach could facilitate the discovery of Ab drugs against infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsih-Te Yang
- Institute of Medical Informatics, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan; Institute of Oral Medicine, National Cheng Kung University College of Medicine, Taiwan.
| | - Hong Yang
- Office of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Jung-Hsien Chiang
- Institute of Medical Informatics, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Jon Wang
- Department of Bioscience Technology, Chang Jung Christian University, Taiwan
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6
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Moise L, Gutierrez A, Kibria F, Martin R, Tassone R, Liu R, Terry F, Martin B, De Groot AS. iVAX: An integrated toolkit for the selection and optimization of antigens and the design of epitope-driven vaccines. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2016; 11:2312-21. [PMID: 26155959 PMCID: PMC4635942 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2015.1061159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Computational vaccine design, also known as computational vaccinology, encompasses epitope mapping, antigen selection and immunogen design using computational tools. The iVAX toolkit is an integrated set of tools that has been in development since 1998 by De Groot and Martin. It comprises a suite of immunoinformatics algorithms for triaging candidate antigens, selecting immunogenic and conserved T cell epitopes, eliminating regulatory T cell epitopes, and optimizing antigens for immunogenicity and protection against disease. iVAX has been applied to vaccine development programs for emerging infectious diseases, cancer antigens and biodefense targets. Several iVAX vaccine design projects have had success in pre-clinical studies in animal models and are progressing toward clinical studies. The toolkit now incorporates a range of immunoinformatics tools for infectious disease and cancer immunotherapy vaccine design. This article will provide a guide to the iVAX approach to computational vaccinology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Moise
- a Institute for Immunology and Informatics; University of Rhode Island ; Providence , RI USA
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7
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Deletion of a Predicted β-Sheet Domain within the Amino Terminus of Herpes Simplex Virus Glycoprotein K Conserved among Alphaherpesviruses Prevents Virus Entry into Neuronal Axons. J Virol 2015; 90:2230-9. [PMID: 26656706 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02468-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED We have shown previously that herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) lacking expression of the entire glycoprotein K (gK) or expressing gK with a 38-amino-acid deletion (gKΔ31-68 mutation) failed to infect ganglionic neurons after ocular infection of mice. We constructed a new model for the predicted three-dimensional structure of gK, revealing that the gKΔ31-68 mutation spans a well-defined β-sheet structure within the amino terminus of gK, which is conserved among alphaherpesviruses. The HSV-1(McKrae) gKΔ31-68 virus was tested for the ability to enter into ganglionic neuronal axons in cell culture of explanted rat ganglia using a novel virus entry proximity ligation assay (VEPLA). In this assay, cell surface-bound virions were detected by the colocalization of gD and its cognate receptor nectin-1 on infected neuronal surfaces. Capsids that have entered into the cytoplasm were detected by the colocalization of the virion tegument protein UL37, with dynein required for loading of virion capsids onto microtubules for retrograde transport to the nucleus. HSV-1(McKrae) gKΔ31-68 attached to cell surfaces of Vero cells and ganglionic axons in cell culture as efficiently as wild-type HSV-1(McKrae). However, unlike the wild-type virus, the mutant virus failed to enter into the axoplasm of ganglionic neurons. This work suggests that the amino terminus of gK is a critical determinant for entry into neuronal axons and may serve similar conserved functions for other alphaherpesviruses. IMPORTANCE Alphaherpesviruses, unlike beta- and gammaherpesviruses, have the unique ability to infect and establish latency in neurons. Glycoprotein K (gK) and the membrane protein UL20 are conserved among all alphaherpesviruses. We show here that a predicted β-sheet domain, which is conserved among alphaherpesviruses, functions in HSV-1 entry into neuronal axons, suggesting that it may serve similar functions for other herpesviruses. These results are in agreement with our previous observations that deletion of this gK domain prevents the virus from successfully infecting ganglionic neurons after ocular infection of mice.
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8
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Song L, Xiong D, Kang X, Yang Y, Wang J, Guo Y, Xu H, Chen S, Peng D, Pan Z, Jiao X. An avian influenza A (H7N9) virus vaccine candidate based on the fusion protein of hemagglutinin globular head and Salmonella typhimurium flagellin. BMC Biotechnol 2015; 15:79. [PMID: 26286143 PMCID: PMC4544785 DOI: 10.1186/s12896-015-0195-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background A novel influenza virus, subtype H7N9, circulated through China in 2013–2014. Its higher rates of human infection in a wide range of locations within China and the associated increased likelihood of human-to-human transmission have caused global concern. Recombinant subunit vaccines provide safe and targeted protection against viral infections. However, the protective efficacy of recombinant subunit vaccines tends to be less potent than vaccines made from whole viruses. Studies have shown that bacterial flagellin has strong adjuvant activity and induces protective immune responses. Results In this study, we used overlap-PCR to generate an H7N9 influenza recombinant subunit vaccine that fused the globular head domain (HA1-2, aa 62–284) of the protective hemagglutinin (HA) antigen with the potent TLR5 ligand, Salmonella typhimurium flagellin (fliC). The resulting fusion protein, HA1-2-fliC, was efficiently expressed in an Escherichia coli prokaryotic expression system, and Western blotting and TLR5-stimulating activity analysis confirmed that the HA1-2-fliC moiety could be faithfully refolded to take on the native HA and fliC conformations. In a C3H/HeJ mouse model of intraperitoneal vaccination, the fusion protein elicited significant and robust HA1-2-specific serum IgG titers, maintaining high levels for at least 3 months in the vaccinated animals, and induced similar levels of HA1-2-specific IgG1 and IgG2a that were detectable 12 days after the third immunization. HA1-2-fliC was also found to be capable of triggering the production of neutralizing antibodies, as assessed by measuring hemagglutination inhibition titers. Conclusions We conclude that immunization with HA1-2-fliC induces potent HA1-2-specific responses, offering significant promise for the development of a successful recombinant subunit vaccine for avian influenza A (H7N9).
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Song
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Dan Xiong
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Xilong Kang
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Yun Yang
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Yaxin Guo
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Hui Xu
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Sujuan Chen
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Daxin Peng
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China
| | - Zhiming Pan
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China. .,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.
| | - Xinan Jiao
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China. .,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, 48 East Wenhui Road, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225009, China.
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9
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Carter DM, Bloom CE, Kirchenbaum GA, Tsvetnitsky V, Isakova-Sivak I, Rudenko L, Ross TM. Cross-protection against H7N9 influenza strains using a live-attenuated H7N3 virus vaccine. Vaccine 2015; 33:108-16. [PMID: 25448100 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2014] [Revised: 10/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
In 2013, avian H7N9 influenza viruses were detected infecting people in China resulting in high mortality. Influenza H7 vaccines that provide cross-protection against these new viruses are needed until specific H7N9 vaccines are ready to market. In this study, an available H7N3 cold-adapted, temperature sensitive, live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) elicited protective immune responses in ferrets against H7N9 viruses. The H7N3 LAIV administered alone (by intranasal or subcutaneous administration) or in a prime-boost strategy using inactivated H7N9 virus resulted in high HAI titers and protected 100% of the animals against H7N9 challenge. Naïve ferrets passively administered immune serum from H7N3 LAIV infected animals were also protected. In contrast, recombinant HA protein or inactivated viruses did not protect ferrets against challenge and elicited lower antibody titers. Thus, the H7N3 LAIV vaccine was immunogenic in healthy seronegative ferrets and protected these ferrets against the newly emerged H7N9 avian influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald M Carter
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, FL, USA
| | - Chalise E Bloom
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, FL, USA
| | | | | | - Irina Isakova-Sivak
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Larisa Rudenko
- Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Ted M Ross
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, FL, USA.
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