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López-Gijón R, Camarós E, Rubio-Salvador Á, Duras S, Botella-López MC, Alemán-Aguilera I, Rodríguez-Aguilera Á, Bustamante-Álvarez M, Sánchez-Barba LP, Dufour B, Le Bailly M. Implications of the prevalence of Ascaris sp. in the funerary context of a Late Antique population (5th-7th c.) in Granada (Spain). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PALEOPATHOLOGY 2023; 43:45-50. [PMID: 37738817 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpp.2023.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the prevalence of gastro-intestinal parasites in human remains from Late Antiquity (5th - 7th c.) Granada (Spain). MATERIALS The study included pelvic and cranial control samples from 17 skeletons from the archaeological sites of Los Mondragones (n = 13) and Rafael Guillén (n = 4). METHODS In the paleoparasitological study, soil samples from pelvic area and cranium were analyzed using the rehydration, homogenization, and micro-sieving method and visualization under brightfield microscopy. RESULTS Ascaris sp. eggs were detected in pelvic samples from seven individuals. CONCLUSIONS These findings may indicate that this parasite was endemic. Its detection frequency is one of the highest reported at group level in an osteological series from Late Antiquity. SIGNIFICANCE The prevalence of Ascaris sp. associated with skeletal remains has implications for assessing the lifestyle and health of populations in southern Spain during the Late Antique period. LIMITATIONS The number of individuals is small and taphonomic processes could have limited paleoparasitological findings SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Future interdisciplinary studies of this type are warranted in larger osteological series to improve knowledge of parasitosis in the past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramón López-Gijón
- Laboratorio de Antropología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Granada, Av. de la Investigación 11, 18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - Edgard Camarós
- Departamento de Historia (Sección de Prehistoria), Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Praza da Universidade, 15703 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Ángel Rubio-Salvador
- Laboratorio de Antropología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Granada, Av. de la Investigación 11, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Salvatore Duras
- Laboratorio de Antropología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Granada, Av. de la Investigación 11, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Miguel C Botella-López
- Laboratorio de Antropología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Granada, Av. de la Investigación 11, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Alemán-Aguilera
- Laboratorio de Antropología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Granada, Av. de la Investigación 11, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | | | - Macarena Bustamante-Álvarez
- Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Campus de Cartuja s/n, 18016 Granada, Spain
| | - Lydia P Sánchez-Barba
- Laboratorio de Antropología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Granada, Av. de la Investigación 11, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Benjamin Dufour
- CNRS UMR 6249 Chrono-environment, University of Franche-Comte, 16 route de Gray, 25030 Besançon Cedex, France
| | - Matthieu Le Bailly
- CNRS UMR 6249 Chrono-environment, University of Franche-Comte, 16 route de Gray, 25030 Besançon Cedex, France
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Reconstructing the history of helminth prevalence in the UK. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010312. [PMID: 35446843 PMCID: PMC9022885 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Intestinal helminth parasites (worms) have afflicted humans throughout history and their eggs are readily detected in archaeological deposits including at locations where intestinal parasites are no longer considered endemic (e.g. the UK). Parasites provide valuable archaeological insights into historical health, sanitation, hygiene, dietary and culinary practices, as well as other factors. Differences in the prevalence of helminths over time may help us understand factors that affected the rate of infection of these parasites in past populations. While communal deposits often contain relatively high numbers of parasite eggs, these cannot be used to calculate prevalence rates, which are a key epidemiological measure of infection. The prevalence of intestinal helminths was investigated through time in England, based on analysis of 464 human burials from 17 sites, dating from the Prehistoric to Industrial periods. Eggs from two faecal-oral transmitted nematodes (Ascaris sp. and Trichuris sp.) and the food-derived cestodes (Taenia spp. and Diphyllobothrium latum syn Dibothriocephalus latus) were identified, although only Ascaris was detected at a high frequency. The changing prevalence of nematode infections can be attributed to changes in effective sanitation or other factors that affect these faecal-oral transmitted parasites and the presence of cestode infections reflect dietary and culinary preferences. These results indicate that the impact of helminth infections on past populations varied over time, and that some locations witnessed a dramatic reduction in parasite prevalence during the industrial era (18th-19th century), whereas other locations continued to experience high prevalence levels. The factors underlying these reductions and the variation in prevalence provide a key historical context for modern anthelmintic programs. Parasitic worms (helminths) cause many health problems in poorer countries, particularly those in tropical and sub-tropical regions. In modern Europe these infections are very rare and mostly found in those travelling from endemic areas but this wasn’t always the case. Archaeological studies have detected eggs of parasitic helminths in numerous European sites. Key questions include how prevalent these infections were in past communities and whether (or when) these patterns changed over time? This paper addresses both of these questions using a large number of single grave samples from archaeological sites in England dating between Prehistoric and Industrial periods. Helminth infections were detected across all periods but the overall prevalence rates changed over time, being highest in the Roman and Late-Medieval periods. The Industrial period was interesting in that two of the three sites contained very few (or no) parasites whereas the third, London, contained high levels of infection. We discuss factors that may have contributed to the changing parasite landscape and how understanding these factors may influence efforts to control helminth infections in modern endemic areas.
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New data on eggshell structure of capillariid species: a SEM perspective. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:963-970. [PMID: 33501587 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-07032-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Capillariidae is a group of nematode parasites of vertebrates with a complex taxonomy. The structure of the eggshell, which was indicated as the most important characteristic for identification of genus or species through eggs, is very diverse among genera. The visualization and characterization of eggshell by light microscopy (LM) are a challenging task since different planes of the egg surface are needed. Nevertheless, categories of eggshell ornamentation were proposed by LM: smooth, punctuated, reticulated type I, and reticulated type II. The present study aimed to characterize the eggshell structure of Capillariidae species, parasites of mammals and avians, deposited in a helminthological collection using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Institutional Biological Collections are taxonomic repositories of specimens described and strictly identified at the species level by systematics specialists. SEM eggshell images were obtained from 12 species belonging to 5 genera (Aonchotheca, Baruscapillaria, Capillaria, Echinocoleus, Eucoleus) and compared to their respective LM images. Eggshell patterns observed using SEM were associated categories of eggshell ornamentation previously proposed by LM images. The SEM data indicate that eggshell categories are not in agreement with capillariid genera or sites of infection. However, the study provides previously unknown SEM eggshell information from curated species, which contributes with a specific and supplementary taxonomic feature at the species level of Capillariidae.
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Flammer PG, Smith AL. Intestinal helminths as a biomolecular complex in archaeological research. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190570. [PMID: 33012232 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteric helminths are common parasites in many parts of the world and in the past were much more widespread both geographically and socially. Many enteric helminths are relatively long-lived in the human host, often benign or of low pathogenicity while producing large numbers of environmentally resistant eggs voided in the faeces or found associated with individual remains (skeletons and mummies). The combination of helminth characters offers opportunities to the field of historical pathogen research that are quite different to that of some of the more intensively studied high impact pathogens. Historically, a wealth of studies has employed microscopic techniques to diagnose infection using the morphology of the helminth eggs. More recently, various ancient DNA (aDNA) approaches have been applied in the archaeoparasitological context and these are revolutionizing the field, allowing much more specific diagnosis as well as interrogating the epidemiology of helminths. These advances have enhanced the potential for the field to provide unique information on past populations including using diseases to consider many aspects of life (e.g. sanitation, hygiene, diet, culinary practices and other aspects of society). Here, we consider the impact of helminth archaeoparasitology and more specifically the impact and potential for application of aDNA technologies as a part of the archaeologists' toolkit. This article is part of the theme issue 'Insights into health and disease from ancient biomolecules'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adrian L Smith
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK
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Epidemiological insights from a large-scale investigation of intestinal helminths in Medieval Europe. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008600. [PMID: 32853225 PMCID: PMC7451528 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Helminth infections are among the World Health Organization's top neglected diseases with significant impact in many Less Economically Developed Countries. Despite no longer being endemic in Europe, the widespread presence of helminth eggs in archaeological deposits indicates that helminths represented a considerable burden in past European populations. Prevalence of infection is a key epidemiological feature that would influence the elimination of endemic intestinal helminths, for example, low prevalence rates may have made it easier to eliminate these infections in Europe without the use of modern anthelminthic drugs. To determine historical prevalence rates we analysed 589 grave samples from 7 European sites dated between 680 and 1700 CE, identifying two soil transmitted nematodes (Ascaris spp. and Trichuris trichiura) at all locations, and two food derived cestodes (Diphyllobothrium latum and Taenia spp.) at 4 sites. The rates of nematode infection in the medieval populations (1.5 to 25.6% for T. trichiura; 9.3-42.9% for Ascaris spp.) were comparable to those reported within modern endemically infected populations. There was some evidence of higher levels of nematode infection in younger individuals but not at all sites. The genetic diversity of T. trichiura ITS-1 in single graves was variable but much lower than with communal medieval latrine deposits. The prevalence of food derived cestodes was much lower (1.0-9.9%) than the prevalence of nematodes. Interestingly, sites that contained Taenia spp. eggs also contained D. latum which may reflect local culinary practices. These data demonstrate the importance of helminth infections in Medieval Europe and provide a baseline for studies on the epidemiology of infection in historical and modern contexts. Since the prevalence of medieval STH infections mirror those in modern endemic countries the factors affecting STH decline in Europe may also inform modern intervention campaigns.
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Chessa D, Murgia M, Sias E, Deligios M, Mazzarello V, Fiamma M, Rovina D, Carenti G, Ganau G, Pintore E, Fiori M, Kay GL, Ponzeletti A, Cappuccinelli P, Kelvin DJ, Wain J, Rubino S. Metagenomics and microscope revealed T. trichiura and other intestinal parasites in a cesspit of an Italian nineteenth century aristocratic palace. Sci Rep 2020; 10:12656. [PMID: 32728085 PMCID: PMC7391740 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69497-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
This study evidenced the presence of parasites in a cesspit of an aristocratic palace of nineteenth century in Sardinia (Italy) by the use of classical paleoparasitological techniques coupled with next-generation sequencing. Parasite eggs identified by microscopy included helminth genera pathogenic for humans and animals: the whipworm Trichuris sp., the roundworm Ascaris sp., the flatworm Dicrocoelium sp. and the fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium sp. In addition, 18S rRNA metabarcoding and metagenomic sequencing analysis allowed the first description in Sardinia of aDNA of the human specific T. trichiura species and Ascaris genus. Their presence is important for understanding the health conditions, hygiene habits, agricultural practices and the diet of the local inhabitants in the period under study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Chessa
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, V. le San Pietro 43/B, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - Manuela Murgia
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, V. le San Pietro 43/B, 07100, Sassari, Italy.
| | - Emanuela Sias
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, V. le San Pietro 43/B, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - Massimo Deligios
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, V. le San Pietro 43/B, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - Vittorio Mazzarello
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, V. le San Pietro 43/B, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - Maura Fiamma
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, V. le San Pietro 43/B, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - Daniela Rovina
- Superintendence Archaeology of Sardinia, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - Gabriele Carenti
- Department of Nature and Environmental Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - Giulia Ganau
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, V. le San Pietro 43/B, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Pintore
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | | | - Gemma L Kay
- Bob Champion Research and Educational Building, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
- The Quadram Institute, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
| | | | - Piero Cappuccinelli
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, V. le San Pietro 43/B, 07100, Sassari, Italy
| | - David J Kelvin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - John Wain
- Bob Champion Research and Educational Building, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
- The Quadram Institute, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
| | - Salvatore Rubino
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari, V. le San Pietro 43/B, 07100, Sassari, Italy
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Yeh HY, Zhan X, Qi W. A comparison of ancient parasites as seen from archeological contexts and early medical texts in China. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PALEOPATHOLOGY 2019; 25:30-38. [PMID: 30986655 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpp.2019.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Revised: 02/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper integrates our knowledge from traditional Chinese medical texts and archeological findings to discuss parasitic loads in early China. Many studies have documented that several different species of eukaryotic endoparasites were present in early human populations throughout China. Nevertheless, comprehensive paleoparasitological records from China are patchy, largely due to taphonomic and environmental factors. An examination of early Chinese medical texts allows us to fill in some of the gaps and counteract apparent biases in the current archeoparasitological records. By integrating the findings of paleoparasitology with historic textual sources, we show that parasites have been affecting the lives of humans in China since ancient times. We discuss the presence and prevalence of three groups of parasites in ancient China: roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides), Asian schistosoma (Schistosoma japonicum), and tapeworm (Taenia sp.). We also examine possible factors that favored the spread of these endoparasites among early humans. Therefore, this paper not only aims to reveal how humans have been affected by endoparasites, but also addresses how early medical knowledge developed to cope with the parasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Yuan Yeh
- School of Humanities, Nanyang Technological University, 48 Nanyang Ave, 639818, Singapore.
| | - Xiaoya Zhan
- School of Humanities, Nanyang Technological University, 48 Nanyang Ave, 639818, Singapore
| | - Wuyun Qi
- Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, 100732, China
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Borba VH, Machado-Silva JR, Le Bailly M, Iñiguez AM. Worldwide paleodistribution of capillariid parasites: Paleoparasitology, current status of phylogeny and taxonomic perspectives. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0216150. [PMID: 31039193 PMCID: PMC6490956 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Paleoparasitology, the study of parasites in the past, brings the knowledge of where and when they occurred in preterit populations. Some groups of parasites, as capillariids, have a complex and controversial systematic, hindering the paleoparasitological diagnosis. In this article, we synthesized the occurrence of capillariids in both the New and the Old World in ancient times, and discussed the difficulty of the diagnosis of species and the strategies for identification. The present review also shows the current status of the phylogeny in capillariids and indicates the necessity to try new approaches for a better understanding of capillariid paleodistribution. Methods For the systematic review, a predefined guideline defined by PRISMA was used. The articles collected were identified, screened, and included in the review following criteria for eligibility. The current status of the phylogeny of capillariids was accessed using MUSCLE, Bioedit v.7.0.5 and MEGA v. 7.0.21 programs. Results The review discussed 38 articles that presented information about capillariids in past populations. Most of capillariid eggs found in the New and Old World were not identified. However, Calodium hepaticum eggs were the most identified, as some from Eucoleus genus. It was observed that sites from the New World had a better chance for capillariid egg identification, due to previous knowledge of its host, when compared to the Old World. In the 18S rDNA phylogenetic analyses, two datasets were constructed, one including sequences from 7 Moravec’s genera, where 3 genus-specific clusters, with high bootstrap values, could be observed for Capillaria (ML = 99%, NJ = 96%), Eucoleus (ML / NJ = 100%) and Paratrichosoma (ML / NJ = 100%). A fourth cluster of 18S rDNA dataset I revealed lack of definition of Pearsonema and Aonchotheca genera. The 18S rDNA dataset II comprised 8 Moravec’s genera and defined 3 clusters, 2 genus-specific for Eucoleus (ML = 99%, NJ = 100%) and Capillaria (ML / NJ = 98%). The third 18S rDNA dataset II cluster included 6 genera and exhibited, once again, Pearsonema and Aonchotheca poor discrimination. The cox1 gene data consist of 4 Moravec’s genera, and in spite of grouping some species-specific clusters, did not show genera-specific definition. Conclusions Despite the numerous archaeological findings, both in the New and the Old Worlds, the identification of capillariid species based on the morphology and morphometry of eggs remains imprecise, often resulting in a generic diagnosis of a group or morphotype of capillariid. Capillariid is one of the most diverse group of helminths recovered in archaeological sites. The phylogenetic trees produced in this study showed limited genetic information available, unresolved genera and incongruence with the classical taxonomy. The elucidation of the paleodistribution of capillariids can give insights of the ancient host-parasite associations but also in modern sceneries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Hugo Borba
- Laboratório de Helmintologia Romero Lascasas Porto, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FCM/UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (IOC/FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - José Roberto Machado-Silva
- Laboratório de Helmintologia Romero Lascasas Porto, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FCM/UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Matthieu Le Bailly
- University of Bourgogne Franche-Comte, CNRS UMR 6249 Chrono-environment, Besançon, France
| | - Alena Mayo Iñiguez
- Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (IOC/FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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Côté NML, Daligault J, Pruvost M, Bennett EA, Gorgé O, Guimaraes S, Capelli N, Le Bailly M, Geigl EM, Grange T. A New High-Throughput Approach to Genotype Ancient Human Gastrointestinal Parasites. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0146230. [PMID: 26752051 PMCID: PMC4709038 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0146230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Human gastrointestinal parasites are good indicators for hygienic conditions and health status of past and present individuals and communities. While microscopic analysis of eggs in sediments of archeological sites often allows their taxonomic identification, this method is rarely effective at the species level, and requires both the survival of intact eggs and their proper identification. Genotyping via PCR-based approaches has the potential to achieve a precise species-level taxonomic determination. However, so far it has mostly been applied to individual eggs isolated from archeological samples. To increase the throughput and taxonomic accuracy, as well as reduce costs of genotyping methods, we adapted a PCR-based approach coupled with next-generation sequencing to perform precise taxonomic identification of parasitic helminths directly from archeological sediments. Our study of twenty-five 100 to 7,200 year-old archeological samples proved this to be a powerful, reliable and efficient approach for species determination even in the absence of preserved eggs, either as a stand-alone method or as a complement to microscopic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie M. L. Côté
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS, University Paris Diderot, UMR 7592, Epigenome and Paleogenome group, 15 rue Hélène Brion, 75205, Paris, Cedex 13, France
- University of Bourgogne Franche-Comte, CNRS UMR 6249 Chrono-environment, 16 route de Gray, 25030, Besançon cedex, France
| | - Julien Daligault
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS, University Paris Diderot, UMR 7592, Epigenome and Paleogenome group, 15 rue Hélène Brion, 75205, Paris, Cedex 13, France
| | - Mélanie Pruvost
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS, University Paris Diderot, UMR 7592, Epigenome and Paleogenome group, 15 rue Hélène Brion, 75205, Paris, Cedex 13, France
| | - E. Andrew Bennett
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS, University Paris Diderot, UMR 7592, Epigenome and Paleogenome group, 15 rue Hélène Brion, 75205, Paris, Cedex 13, France
| | - Olivier Gorgé
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS, University Paris Diderot, UMR 7592, Epigenome and Paleogenome group, 15 rue Hélène Brion, 75205, Paris, Cedex 13, France
| | - Silvia Guimaraes
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS, University Paris Diderot, UMR 7592, Epigenome and Paleogenome group, 15 rue Hélène Brion, 75205, Paris, Cedex 13, France
| | - Nicolas Capelli
- University of Bourgogne Franche-Comte, CNRS UMR 6249 Chrono-environment, 16 route de Gray, 25030, Besançon cedex, France
| | - Matthieu Le Bailly
- University of Bourgogne Franche-Comte, CNRS UMR 6249 Chrono-environment, 16 route de Gray, 25030, Besançon cedex, France
| | - Eva-Maria Geigl
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS, University Paris Diderot, UMR 7592, Epigenome and Paleogenome group, 15 rue Hélène Brion, 75205, Paris, Cedex 13, France
- * E-mail: (EMG); (TG)
| | - Thierry Grange
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS, University Paris Diderot, UMR 7592, Epigenome and Paleogenome group, 15 rue Hélène Brion, 75205, Paris, Cedex 13, France
- * E-mail: (EMG); (TG)
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