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Dillis C, Petersen-Rockney M, Polson M. A theory of geo-social marginalization: A case study of the licensed cannabis industry in California. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 355:120396. [PMID: 38430877 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
The licensed cannabis industry represents one of the top five most economically valued agricultural commodities in California, yet farming largely remains on remote, environmentally sensitive, "marginal" lands. Using mixed methods, this paper examines the determinants of this marginalization, their embedded elaboration, and their relation to historical policy regimes. We used Generalized Additive Models (GAMs) to determine the most important predictors of licensed cannabis industry development since the inception of a statewide licensing program in 2018 and to compare the distribution of licensed cannabis to other forms of rural agriculture, including vineyards and pasture, to understand landscape factors and environmental sensitivity of land uses. We found that a county's median income and the extent of traditional (non-cannabis) agriculture, as measured by the proportion of on-farm (non-cannabis) employment, were both negatively associated with its amount of licensed cannabis agriculture. Ethnographic data suggests that cannabis is often excluded from traditional agricultural areas, through formal local-level bans, restrictive zoning, high "prime" farmland values, and cultural exclusions from other powerful resource users. The resulting relegation to "marginal" lands foments conflicts with amenity land users and environmentalists, even as it partly supports "legacy" cultivators whose farms were established under prior policy regimes. Results suggest that cannabis is more likely to be grown under conditions that introduce regulatory hurdles, including farming on steeper slopes, with natural streams onsite, and without access to large groundwater aquifers for irrigation. Our findings suggest that failure to allow licensed cannabis farming in traditional agriculture regions has led to a self-fulfilling prophecy wherein cannabis cultivation is largely relegated to environmentally sensitive areas where cultivation activity has an elevated tendency for environmental impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Dillis
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy & Management (ESPM), University of California, Berkeley, United States.
| | - Margiana Petersen-Rockney
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy & Management (ESPM), University of California, Berkeley, United States
| | - Michael Polson
- Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley, United States
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Fordjour E, Manful CF, Sey AA, Javed R, Pham TH, Thomas R, Cheema M. Cannabis: a multifaceted plant with endless potentials. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1200269. [PMID: 37397476 PMCID: PMC10308385 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1200269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis sativa, also known as "hemp" or "weed," is a versatile plant with various uses in medicine, agriculture, food, and cosmetics. This review attempts to evaluate the available literature on the ecology, chemical composition, phytochemistry, pharmacology, traditional uses, industrial uses, and toxicology of Cannabis sativa. So far, 566 chemical compounds have been isolated from Cannabis, including 125 cannabinoids and 198 non-cannabinoids. The psychoactive and physiologically active part of the plant is a cannabinoid, mostly found in the flowers, but also present in smaller amounts in the leaves, stems, and seeds. Of all phytochemicals, terpenes form the largest composition in the plant. Pharmacological evidence reveals that the plants contain cannabinoids which exhibit potential as antioxidants, antibacterial agents, anticancer agents, and anti-inflammatory agents. Furthermore, the compounds in the plants have reported applications in the food and cosmetic industries. Significantly, Cannabis cultivation has a minimal negative impact on the environment in terms of cultivation. Most of the studies focused on the chemical make-up, phytochemistry, and pharmacological effects, but not much is known about the toxic effects. Overall, the Cannabis plant has enormous potential for biological and industrial uses, as well as traditional and other medicinal uses. However, further research is necessary to fully understand and explore the uses and beneficial properties of Cannabis sativa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Fordjour
- School of Science and the Environment, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Corner Brook, NL, Canada
- Biotron Experimental Climate Change Research Centre/Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Charles F. Manful
- School of Science and the Environment, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Corner Brook, NL, Canada
| | - Albert A. Sey
- School of Science and the Environment, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Corner Brook, NL, Canada
| | - Rabia Javed
- School of Science and the Environment, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Corner Brook, NL, Canada
| | - Thu Huong Pham
- School of Science and the Environment, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Corner Brook, NL, Canada
| | - Raymond Thomas
- Biotron Experimental Climate Change Research Centre/Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Mumtaz Cheema
- School of Science and the Environment, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Corner Brook, NL, Canada
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Klassen M, Anthony BP. Legalization of Cannabis and Agricultural Frontier Expansion. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 69:333-352. [PMID: 34748069 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-021-01555-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The environmental impacts of cannabis cultivation have been an issue of growing concern, with legalization often framed as a means to introduce regulations that hinder damaging practices. However, the concept of frontier expansion presents the possibility that the widespread establishment of this new industry may institute an additional source of habitat encroachment. Here, through geospatial analysis, we employ Colorado as a case study to investigate the distribution of licensed recreational cannabis cultivators, potential habitat infringement of threatened and endangered species, and LULC change. From 2011 to 2016, licensed cannabis cultivation has resulted in over 67 ha of LULC change toward more developed land uses. In addition, nearly 15 km of new fencing was constructed establishing over 38 ha of fenced areas, and nearly 60 ha of vegetation was cleared. Much of this cannabis-driven LULC change is identified within the habitats of threatened and endangered species, as well as areas recognized as containing high biodiversity values with the potential for conservation. Thus, notable cannabis-driven frontier expansion is evident. Cannabis-driven LULC change is found to be primarily produced by outdoor and greenhouse facilities, as well as operations utilizing mixed-cultivation methods in rural areas. Therefore, policy instruments that inter alia encourage indoor cannabis cultivation in urban areas are recommended and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Klassen
- 108 Riverhead Road, Kumeu 0892, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Brandon P Anthony
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy, Central European University, Quellenstrasse 51-55, 1100, Vienna, Austria
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Zheng Z, Fiddes K, Yang L. A narrative review on environmental impacts of cannabis cultivation. J Cannabis Res 2021; 3:35. [PMID: 34362475 PMCID: PMC8349047 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00090-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Interest in growing cannabis for medical and recreational purposes is increasing worldwide. This study reviews the environmental impacts of cannabis cultivation. Results show that both indoor and outdoor cannabis growing is water-intensive. The high water demand leads to water pollution and diversion, which could negatively affect the ecosystem. Studies found out that cannabis plants emit a significant amount of biogenic volatile organic compounds, which could cause indoor air quality issues. Indoor cannabis cultivation is energy-consuming, mainly due to heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and lighting. Energy consumption leads to greenhouse gas emissions. Cannabis cultivation could directly contribute to soil erosion. Meanwhile, cannabis plants have the ability to absorb and store heavy metals. It is envisioned that technologies such as precision irrigation could reduce water use, and application of tools such as life cycle analysis would advance understanding of the environmental impacts of cannabis cultivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhonghua Zheng
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Kelsey Fiddes
- Department of Health Sciences Environmental Health and Sustainability Program, Illinois State University, Normal, IL, 61790, USA
| | - Liangcheng Yang
- Department of Health Sciences Environmental Health and Sustainability Program, Illinois State University, Normal, IL, 61790, USA.
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Franklin AB, Carlson PC, Rex A, Rockweit JT, Garza D, Culhane E, Volker SF, Dusek RJ, Shearn-Bochsler VI, Gabriel MW, Horak KE. Grass is not always greener: rodenticide exposure of a threatened species near marijuana growing operations. BMC Res Notes 2018; 11:94. [PMID: 29391058 PMCID: PMC5796583 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-018-3206-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Marijuana (Cannabis spp.) growing operations (MGO) in California have increased substantially since the mid-1990s. One environmental side-effect of MGOs is the extensive use of anticoagulant rodenticides (AR) to prevent damage to marijuana plants caused by wild rodents. In association with a long-term demographic study, we report on an observation of brodifacoum AR exposure in a threatened species, the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina), found freshly dead within 669-1347 m of at least seven active MGOs. RESULTS Liver and blood samples from the dead northern spotted owl were tested for 12 rodenticides. Brodifacoum was the only rodenticide detected in the liver (33.3-36.3 ng/g) and blood (0.48-0.54 ng/ml). Based on necropsy results, it was unclear what role brodifacoum had in the death of this bird. However, fatal AR poisoning has been previously reported in owls with relatively low levels of brodifacoum residues in the liver. One likely mechanism of AR transmission from MGOs to northern spotted owls in California is through ingestion of AR contaminated prey that frequent MGOs. The proliferation of MGOs with their use of ARs in forested landscapes used by northern spotted owls may pose an additional stressor for this threatened species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan B Franklin
- USDA-APHIS-WS National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 Laporte Ave, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA.
| | - Peter C Carlson
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Angela Rex
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Jeremy T Rockweit
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - David Garza
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Emily Culhane
- Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Colorado State University, 1484 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Steven F Volker
- USDA-APHIS-WS National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 Laporte Ave, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA
| | - Robert J Dusek
- U. S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Valerie I Shearn-Bochsler
- U. S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Road, Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Mourad W Gabriel
- Integral Ecology Research Center, 239 Railroad Avenue, Blue Lake, CA, 95525, USA
| | - Katherine E Horak
- USDA-APHIS-WS National Wildlife Research Center, 4101 Laporte Ave, Fort Collins, CO, 80521, USA
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Apgar TM, Pearse DE, Palkovacs EP. Evolutionary restoration potential evaluated through the use of a trait-linked genetic marker. Evol Appl 2017; 10:485-497. [PMID: 28515781 PMCID: PMC5427673 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Human‐driven evolution can impact the ecological role and conservation value of impacted populations. Most evolutionary restoration approaches focus on manipulating gene flow, but an alternative approach is to manipulate the selection regime to restore historical or desired trait values. Here we examined the potential utility of this approach to restore anadromous migratory behavior in coastal California steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) populations. We evaluated the effects of natural and anthropogenic environmental variables on the observed frequency of alleles at a genomic marker tightly associated with migratory behavior across 39 steelhead populations from across California, USA. We then modeled the potential for evolutionary restoration at sites that have been impacted by anthropogenic barriers. We found that complete barriers such as dams are associated with major reductions in the frequency of anadromy‐associated alleles. The removal of dams is therefore expected to restore anadromy significantly. Interestingly, accumulations of large numbers of partial barriers (passable under at least some flow conditions) were also associated with significant reductions in migratory allele frequencies. Restoration involving the removal of partial barriers could be evaluated alongside dam removal and fishway construction as a cost‐effective tool to restore anadromous fish migrations. Results encourage broader consideration of in situ evolution during the development of habitat restoration projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis M Apgar
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Santa Cruz CA USA
| | - Devon E Pearse
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Santa Cruz CA USA.,Southwest Fisheries Science Center National Marine Fisheries Service Santa Cruz CA USA
| | - Eric P Palkovacs
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of California Santa Cruz CA USA
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Ashworth K, Vizuete W. High Time to Assess the Environmental Impacts of Cannabis Cultivation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:2531-2533. [PMID: 28212013 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b06343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- K Ashworth
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University , Lancaster LA1 4YQ, Lancashire, United Kingdom
| | - W Vizuete
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514, United States
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Bauer S, Olson J, Cockrill A, van Hattem M, Miller L, Tauzer M, Leppig G. Correction: Impacts of Surface Water Diversions for Marijuana Cultivation on Aquatic Habitat in Four Northwestern California Watersheds. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137935. [PMID: 26335453 PMCID: PMC4559473 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Opportunities and challenges of interbasin water transfers: a literature review with bibliometric analysis. Scientometrics 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11192-015-1656-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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