Why do you dance? Development of the Dance Motivation Inventory (DMI)

"It doesn't feel like exercise": a realist process evaluation of factors that support long-term attendance at dance classes designed for healthy ageing

Introduction

Dance can positively impact older people's health and wellbeing across cultures and socioeconomic groups, countering age-related physical, sensorimotor and cognitive decline.

Background/objectives

The RIPE (Really Is Possible for Everyone) Dance program aims to improve older people's physical, mental, cognitive and social wellbeing by integrating engaging dance sequences with evidence-based fall prevention exercises. We sought to identify what mechanisms support observed long-term participation in this program, including by people living with challenging health conditions.

Methods

Following a realist evaluation approach, we co-developed and tested program theories iteratively with participant interviewees (n = 20), dance teachers (n = 2) and via observation of a dance class. Initial data were dual-coded and emergent findings were interrogated by the research team. Findings were organised to express Program activities + Context + Mechanism = Process outcomes configurations.

Results

We identified four program theories comprising 14 mechanisms which explained long-term attendance: 1. RIPE Dance benefits my body and mind (trust in the program, belief in health benefits), 2. RIPE Dance helps me feel good about myself (self-efficacy, pride in achievement, psychological safety, defying expectations, feeling valued), 3. RIPE Dance creates camaraderie (social connection, mutual support, rapport with the teacher), and 4. RIPE Dance is uplifting (raised spirits, fun, synchrony, musical reactivity).

Conclusion

The RIPE Dance program provides effective and enjoyable 'exercise in disguise' for older people with diverse mobility profiles.

Significance/implications

This research confirms that participation in dance can contribute significantly to healthy, happy ageing. Findings detail program activities that were most strongly associated with process outcomes, offering guidance for further program development, implementation and scaling up.

Escaping through virtual gaming-what is the association with emotional, social, and mental health? A systematic review

Background

The realm of virtual games, video games, and e-sports has witnessed remarkable and substantial growth, captivating a diverse and global audience. However, some studies indicate that this surge is often linked to a desire to escape from real life, a phenomenon known as escapism. Much like substance abuse, escapism has been identified as a significant motivator, leading to adverse outcomes, including addiction. Therefore, it is crucial to comprehend the existing research on the connection between escapism and engagement in virtual gaming. This understanding can shed light on the reasons behind such practices and their potential impact on mental and public health.

Purpose

The objective of this systematic review is investigate the findings pertaining to association between escapism and the practice of virtual games, such as video-games and e-sport.

Methods

PUBMED and SCOPUS database were systematically searched. Six independent researchers screened articles for relevance. We extracted data regarding escapism-related measures, emotional/mental health-related measures and demographic information relevant to the review purpose.

Results

The search yielded 357 articles, 36 were included. Results showed that: (i) Escapist motivation (EM) is one of the main motives for playing virtual games; (ii) EM is related to negative clinical traits; (iii) EM predicts negative psychological/emotional/mental health outcomes; (iv) EM is associated with impaired/negative perception of the real-world life; (v) EM predicts non-adaptive real social life; and (vi) EM is associated with dysfunctional gaming practices in some cases. However, EM can have beneficial effects, fostering confidence, determination, a sense of belonging in virtual communities, and representation through avatars. Furthermore, the reviewed findings suggest that EM was positively linked to mitigating loneliness in anxious individuals and promoting social activities that preserved mental health among typical individuals during the pandemic.

Conclusion

Our review reinforces the evidence linking EM in the context of virtual games to poor mental health and non-adaptive social behavior. The ensuing discussion explores the intricate connection between escapism and mental health, alongside examining the broad implications of virtual gaming practices on underlying motivations for escapism in the realms of social cognition, health promotion, and public health.

Dance for chronic pain conditions: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

Globally, 20-25% of people will experience chronic pain in their lifetime. Dance is a physical activity with psychosocial benefits which may positively impact pain. This review aimed to investigate the effect of dance interventions on the experience of pain, by quantitative measures and qualitative themes.

METHODS

Seven major databases were searched from inception to January 2021. Two independent reviewers screened articles at each stage. Qualitative and quantitative studies were included if the dance interventions lasted over 6 weeks, participants reported pain longer than 3 months, and pain was an outcome of the study. All articles were critically appraised using appropriate Joanna Briggs Institute tools and data were collated using results-based convergent synthesis.

RESULTS

From 23,628 articles 34 full papers were included, with a total of 1254 participants (75.2% female). Studies predominantly investigated individuals with Fibromyalgia (26%) and generalised chronic pain (14%), with aerobic dance (20.7%) and Biodanza (20.7%) the most common dance genres investigated. Overall, 74% of studies noted either reduced pain through quantitative pain measures or qualitative themes of improved pain experience (88% for chronic primary pain and 80% for chronic secondary musculoskeletal pain).

DISCUSSION

There were positive effects of dance on chronic primary and secondary musculoskeletal pain across diverse populations. A variety of study designs and interventions noted improved pain measures and themes around pain coping and acceptance, with all dance therapies showing improvements, particularly when performed for 60-150 minutes duration weekly. Dance should be considered as an effective adjunct in the management of chronic pain.

Shall We Dance? Recreational Dance, Well-Being and Productivity Performance During COVID-19: A Three-Country Study

Mental health issues are increasingly prevalent worldwide, emphasizing the need to research antecedents and consequences of well-being. Prior research shows that within organizations, higher levels of subjective well-being (SWB) promote productivity performance. Building on this research, the authors hypothesize that recreational dance positively influences productivity through higher SWB. Survey data from Brazil, Italy, and the United Kingdom reveal that recreational dancers are more productive than nondancers due to their higher intrinsic motivation and SWB. Dancing has an additional direct effect on productivity, beyond the mediating role of SWB. The results indicate well-being and productivity improvements in all three countries, although they show a moderating effect such that the relationship between recreational dance and SWB is stronger when social norms are perceived to be looser. This study indicates potentially far-reaching benefits that could be achieved by including recreational dance in corporate well-being programs. International dance organizations could market dance classes as a pathway to increase productivity at work and explore synergies with public health marketing to promote the benefits of recreational dance in joint international campaigns.

Effect of Square Dance Interventions on Physical and Mental Health among Chinese Older Adults: A Systematic Review

(1) Background: Square dancing is an emerging form of aerobic exercise in China, especially among middle-aged and older people. The benefits of square dancing have been investigated and promoted in recent years through research and interventions. Interventions have been conducted to promote the participants’ reactionary participation in physical activity, social and family cohesion, and other psychological benefits. Therefore, square dancing has been promoted as a major factor in China’s increase in physical activity prevalence. (2) Methods: A systematic review was used to identify studies that have indicated the effect of square dancing on the physical and mental health among Chinese older adults. (3) Results: Twenty-four studies examining the effects of square dancing on older Chinese adults were extracted. These studies were not found in English databases. The quality of the retrieved studies had a moderate-to-high risk of bias. Square dancing interventions were shown to result in effective mental, physical, and cognitive improvements in the systematic synthesis. (4) Conclusions: This study examined the effects of square dancing in China over the past 10 years on the physical and mental health of older adults. Based on the results of this study, recommendations can be made for future square dance interventions for older adults such as male-oriented, mixed-gender, or intergenerational programs.

Effects of dance intervention on agitation and cognitive functioning of people living with dementia in institutional care facilities: Systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Agitation and impaired cognitive functioning are common symptoms of dementia, which require costly medication regimens that are associated with adverse effects. This study investigates the effects of dance interventions on agitation and cognitive function in people living with dementia in institutional care facilities.

METHODS

Five electronic databases were searched for eligible studies on dance interventions for people living with dementia published between 2002 and 2021. Standard deviation and post mean values were extracted. Within-group Hedges' g was computed for individual studies.

RESULTS

Six randomised controlled trials and three non-randomised studies of satisfactory quality, with a total of 610 participants, were included. Statistical analysis found significant improvements in agitation and cognitive functioning with dance interventions.

DISCUSSION

This review provided favourable evidence on the effects of dance interventions on agitation and cognitive functions in people with dementia. However, given the limited evidence, more studies are needed to confirm the effects.

A Practice-Inspired Mindset for Researching the Psychophysiological and Medical Health Effects of Recreational Dance (Dance Sport)

“Dance” has been associated with many psychophysiological and medical health effects. However, varying definitions of what constitute “dance” have led to a rather heterogenous body of evidence about such potential effects, leaving the picture piecemeal at best. It remains unclear what exact parameters may be driving positive effects. We believe that this heterogeneity of evidence is partly due to a lack of a clear definition of dance for such empirical purposes. A differentiation is needed between (a) the effects on the individual when the activity of “dancing” is enjoyed as a dancer within different dance domains (e.g., professional/”high-art” type of dance, erotic dance, religious dance, club dancing, Dance Movement Therapy (DMT), and what is commonly known as hobby, recreational or social dance), and (b) the effects on the individual within these different domains, as a dancer of the different dance styles (solo dance, partnering dance, group dance; and all the different styles within these). Another separate category of dance engagement is, not as a dancer, but as a spectator of all of the above. “Watching dance” as part of an audience has its own set of psychophysiological and neurocognitive effects on the individual, and depends on the context where dance is witnessed. With the help of dance professionals, we first outline some different dance domains and dance styles, and outline aspects that differentiate them, and that may, therefore, cause differential empirical findings when compared regardless (e.g., amount of interpersonal contact, physical exertion, context, cognitive demand, type of movements, complexity of technique and ratio of choreography/improvisation). Then, we outline commonalities between all dance styles. We identify six basic components that are part of any dance practice, as part of a continuum, and review and discuss available research for each of them concerning the possible health and wellbeing effects of each of these components, and how they may relate to the psychophysiological and health effects that are reported for “dancing”: (1) rhythm and music, (2) sociality, (3) technique and fitness, (4) connection and connectedness (self-intimation), (5) flow and mindfulness, (6) aesthetic emotions and imagination. Future research efforts might take into account the important differences between types of dance activities, as well as the six components, for a more targeted assessment of how “dancing” affects the human body.

Characterization of the Effects of a Six-Month Dancing as Approach for Successful Aging

Aging is accompanied by a decline in multiple domains. Positive effects of dance practice on several health issues have been evaluated in young adults, while the effects of regular social dance practice on physical fitness, sexual health, and cognitive functions have not been studied yet in older experienced dancers. Thus, the aim of this study has been to investigate whether a 6-month social dance practice might influence fitness performance, sexual health, and specific cognitive functions and/or mood characteristics in older experienced dancers. Thirty experienced dancers (age: 71.2±5.1 years, 18 females/12 males) were enrolled from the dance school "NonSoloLiscio" of Catanzaro. Body composition, physical fitness, sexual health, and cognitive functions were assessed before (T0) and after (T6) intervention. After 6 months of dance practice, percent of fat mass (%FM) significantly decreased (p<0.01), while fat-free mass (FFM) significantly increased (p<0.01) in both genders. Moreover, significant main effects of time on physical fitness tests, such as chair stand test (CST) (p<0.01), gait speed (p<0.05), and timed up and go (p<0.05), were found. Sexual health was significantly higher in males than in females at T0 and no significant effects of dance on subjects' sexual health were found. Interestingly, trait of anxiety significant decreased (p<0.05) and perception of retrospective memory significantly increased (p=0.05) after training independently of gender. Our preliminary results suggest that, even in older intermediate-level dancer, the practice of social dance might positively influence body composition and also increase fitness performance, memory functions, and anxiety. In contrast, no effects on sexual health were observed after 6 months of dancing.

The Effectiveness of Dance Interventions on Physical Health Outcomes Compared to Other Forms of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Physical inactivity is one of the key global health challenges as it is associated with adverse effects related to ageing, weight control, physical function, longevity, and quality of life. Dancing is a form of physical activity associated with health benefits across the lifespan, even at amateur levels of participation. However, it is unclear whether dance interventions are equally as effective as other forms of physical activity.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to systematically review the literature on the effectiveness of structured dance interventions, in comparison to structured exercise programmes, on physical health outcome measures.

METHODS

Seven databases were searched from earliest records to 4 August 2017. Studies investigating dance interventions lasting > 4 weeks that included physical health outcomes and had a structured exercise comparison group were included in the study. Screening and data extraction were performed by two reviewers, with all disagreements resolved by the primary author. Where appropriate, meta-analysis was performed or an effect size estimate generated.

RESULTS

Of 11,434 studies identified, 28 (total sample size 1276 participants) met the inclusion criteria. A variety of dance genres and structured exercise interventions were compared. Meta-analyses showed dance interventions significantly improved body composition, blood biomarkers, and musculoskeletal function. The effect of either intervention on cardiovascular function and self-perceived mobility was equivalent.

CONCLUSION

Undertaking structured dance of any genre is equally and occasionally more effective than other types of structured exercise for improving a range of health outcome measures. Health practitioners can recommend structured dance as a safe and effective exercise alternative.

An Internet-based survey of the dance fitness program OULA

Background:

OULA is a high-energy dance workout to top 40 hits that is inspired by yoga and non-impact aerobics. Created in Missoula, Montana, the program has been gaining national and international popularity. To understand the demographic composition, reasons for attending OULA, and experiences with depression/anxiety, we conducted an Internet-based survey.

Methods:

A pilot descriptive cross-sectional Internet-based survey was created in Qualtrics and distributed through social media and flyers.

Results:

The 38-item survey received responses from 302 participants. Current OULA participants chose “exercise” as the primary reason for attending (40.2%, 95% confidence interval: 33.3–48.2), followed by “stress relief/improve mood” (28.8%, 95% confidence interval: 23.0–35.6). Participants listed “stress relief/improve mood” as the most common secondary (35.6%, 95% confidence interval: 29.0–43.2) and tertiary (38.6%, 95% confidence interval: 31.7–46.7) reason for attending OULA. A majority of the participants said that OULA makes them feel like part of a community (93.2%, 95% confidence interval: 82.5–105.1) and increases their energy outside of class (80.1%, 95% confidence interval: 70.2–91.1). In our sample, 12.5% (95% confidence interval: 8.8–17.1) and 9.0% (95% confidence interval: 5.9–12.9) were currently taking antidepressants and anxiolytics, respectively.

Conclusion:

These results suggest that current OULA participants are already using the program to relieve stress or improve mood. Further research should be conducted to understand the relationship between OULA and depression/anxiety.

Temporal trends in dancing among adults between 1994 and 2012: The Health Survey for England

The benefits of physical activity are established, however, increasing population physical activity levels remains a challenge. Participating in activities that are enjoyable and multidimensional, such as dancing, are associated with better adherence. However, the extent to which the general population participates in dancing and its temporal trends has not been well studied. The aim of this study was to investigate temporal trends and patterns and correlates of dance participation in England from 1994 to 2012 using a series of large nationally representative surveys. We used data from the Health Survey for England 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2012 to examine dance temporal trends. Temporal trends data were age-standardized and correlates of dance participation were examined for males and females over each study year. Changes in population prevalence of dance participation were determined using multiple logistical regression with 1997 as the reference year. Of all survey participants (n=98,178) 7.8% (95%CI: 7.63-7.96) reported dance participation. There was a marked steady decrease over time, with the steepest decline from 2003 onwards. The multivariable-adjusted odds ratios for dance participation were 0.51 for males (95%CI 0.408-0.630, p<0.001) and 0.69 for females (95%CI: 0.598-0.973, p<0.001) in 2012 compared to 1997. Dance participation in adults in England has decreased markedly over time. This study suggests that dance is not being adequately utilized as a health enhancing physical activity, and therefore further research and resources should be dedicated to supporting dance in the community.

Toward a qualitative understanding of binge-watching behaviors: A focus group approach

Background and aims Binge-watching (i.e., seeing multiple episodes of the same TV series in a row) now constitutes a widespread phenomenon. However, little is known about the psychological factors underlying this behavior, as reflected by the paucity of available studies, most merely focusing on its potential harmfulness by applying the classic criteria used for other addictive disorders without exploring the uniqueness of binge-watching. This study thus aimed to take the opposite approach as a first step toward a genuine understanding of binge-watching behaviors through a qualitative analysis of the phenomenological characteristics of TV series watching. Methods A focus group of regular TV series viewers (N = 7) was established to explore a wide range of aspects related to TV series watching (e.g., motives, viewing practices, and related behaviors). Results A content analysis identified binge-watching features across three dimensions: TV series watching motivations, TV series watching engagement, and structural characteristics of TV shows. Most participants acknowledged that TV series watching can become addictive, but they all agreed having trouble recognizing themselves as truly being an "addict." Although obvious connections could be established with substance addiction criteria and symptoms, such parallelism appeared to be insufficient, as several distinctive facets emerged (e.g., positive view, transient overinvolvement, context dependency, and low everyday life impact). Discussion and conclusion The research should go beyond the classic biomedical and psychological models of addictive behaviors to account for binge-watching in order to explore its specificities and generate the first steps toward an adequate theoretical rationale for these emerging problematic behaviors.

Not all about sex: neural and biobehavioral functions of human dance

This paper provides an integrative review of neuroscientific and biobehavioral evidence about the effects of dance on the individual across cultural differences. Dance moves us, and many derive aesthetic pleasure from it. However, in addition-and beyond aesthetics-we propose that dance has noteworthy, deeper neurobiological effects. We first summarize evidence that illustrates the centrality of dance to human life indirectly from archaeology, comparative psychology, developmental psychology, and cross-cultural psychology. Second, we review empirical evidence for six neural and biobehavioral functions of dance: (1) attentional focus/flow, (2) basic emotional experiences, (3) imagery, (4) communication, (5) self-intimation, and (6) social cohesion. We discuss the reviewed evidence in relation to current debates in the field of empirical enquiry into the functions of human dance, questioning the positions that dance is (1) just for pleasure, (2) all about sex, (3) just for mood management and well-being, and (4) for experts only. Being a young field, evidence is still piecemeal and inconclusive. This review aims to take a step toward a systematization of an emerging avenue of research: a neuro- and biobehavioral science of dance.

Dancer perceptions of the cognitive, social, emotional, and physical benefits of modern styles of partnered dancing

OBJECTIVE

To study dancers' perceptions of the physical, cognitive, affective, and social benefits of partnered dancing.

METHOD

225 dancers (71% female) were recruited through a community ballroom dance center and completed an online survey designed to measure their perceptions of the physical, cognitive, affective, and social benefits of modern, partnered dance styles (swing, Lindy Hop, and ballroom dancing). Subgroups were formed for analyses. For one set of analyses, groups based on length of dance participation were formed: experienced (dancing for more than 2 years) or novice (dancing for less than a year) dancers. For another set of analyses, groups based on frequency of dance practice were formed: committed (dancing at least one or more times per week) or occasional (dancing two or fewer times per month).

RESULTS

The majority of participants reported perceived benefits in physical fitness, cognition, affect, and social functioning. Experienced dancers reported significantly greater self-perceived physical, social, and cognitive benefits than novice dancers. Committed dancers were more likely than occasional dancers to report improvements in physical fitness, U=6942, z=2.38, r=0.16, p<0.05. A Mann-Whitney test indicated that self-reported improvements in mood (i.e., feeling less depressed and more happy) were greater for women than for men, U=3945, z=-3.07, r=0.20, p<0.001. Length and frequency of dance participation significantly predicted perceived physical benefits [Χ(2) (1,6)=35.463, p <0.001, R(2)=0.16] and social benefits [Χ(2) (1,6)=15.776, p<0.05, R(2)=0.07], but not cognitive benefits.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that participation in partnered dance styles is associated with perceived improvements in physical fitness, cognitive functioning, social functioning, mood, and self-confidence, and that perceived benefits may increase as individuals dance more frequently and over longer periods of time.

An empirical investigation of dance addiction

Although recreational dancing is associated with increased physical and psychological well-being, little is known about the harmful effects of excessive dancing. The aim of the present study was to explore the psychopathological factors associated with dance addiction. The sample comprised 447 salsa and ballroom dancers (68% female, mean age: 32.8 years) who danced recreationally at least once a week. The Exercise Addiction Inventory (Terry, Szabo, & Griffiths, 2004) was adapted for dance (Dance Addiction Inventory, DAI). Motivation, general mental health (BSI-GSI, and Mental Health Continuum), borderline personality disorder, eating disorder symptoms, and dance motives were also assessed. Five latent classes were explored based on addiction symptoms with 11% of participants belonging to the most problematic class. DAI was positively associated with psychiatric distress, borderline personality and eating disorder symptoms. Hierarchical linear regression model indicated that Intensity (ß=0.22), borderline (ß=0.08), eating disorder (ß=0.11) symptoms, as well as Escapism (ß=0.47) and Mood Enhancement (ß=0.15) (as motivational factors) together explained 42% of DAI scores. Dance addiction as assessed with the Dance Addiction Inventory is associated with indicators of mild psychopathology and therefore warrants further research.