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Evaluating the Efficiency of Water Distribution Network Sectors Using the DEA-Weight Russell Directional Distance Model: The Case of the City of Valencia (Spain). SUSTAINABILITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/su131910546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In many cities, sectorization projects of the drinking water distribution network have been implemented. This study provides a methodology to evaluate the efficiency of the sectors of a water distribution network by applying a data envelopment analysis weighted Russell directional distance (DEA-WRDD) model. This non-radial DEA model gives the overall efficiency of each unit of analysis, as well as each input, output, and undesirable output considered in the evaluation. The variables used in the analysis provide a multidisciplinary view: economic factors (covering costs), water quality parameters, and technical aspects. The empirical analysis was performed for the sectors of the water distribution network of the city of Valencia (Spain) for the year 2016. In this particular case, the results showed that approximately half of the sectors were efficient. The efficiency values of each variable indicate that the main challenges (faced by the water distribution company) were the optimization of maintenance costs and the reduction of leaks, both of which have an impact on the quality of the distributed water. So, the purpose of this article is to highlight the usefulness of efficiency analysis to help the decision making of managers of sectorized water distribution networks so that they can optimize the management.
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Hyllestad S, Amato E, Nygård K, Vold L, Aavitsland P. The effectiveness of syndromic surveillance for the early detection of waterborne outbreaks: a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis 2021; 21:696. [PMID: 34284731 PMCID: PMC8290622 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-021-06387-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Waterborne outbreaks are still a risk in high-income countries, and their early detection is crucial to limit their societal consequences. Although syndromic surveillance is widely used for the purpose of detecting outbreaks days earlier than traditional surveillance systems, evidence of the effectiveness of such systems is lacking. Thus, our objective was to conduct a systematic review of the effectiveness of syndromic surveillance to detect waterborne outbreaks. METHOD We searched the Cochrane Library, Medline/PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Web of Science for relevant published articles using a combination of the keywords 'drinking water', 'surveillance', and 'waterborne disease' for the period of 1990 to 2018. The references lists of the identified articles for full-text record assessment were screened, and searches in Google Scholar using the same key words were conducted. We assessed the risk of bias in the included articles using the ROBINS-I tool and PRECEPT for the cumulative body of evidence. RESULTS From the 1959 articles identified, we reviewed 52 articles, of which 18 met the eligibility criteria. Twelve were descriptive/analytical studies, whereas six were simulation studies. There is no clear evidence for syndromic surveillance in terms of the ability to detect waterborne outbreaks (low sensitivity and high specificity). However, one simulation study implied that multiple sources of signals combined with spatial information may increase the timeliness in detecting a waterborne outbreak and reduce false alarms. CONCLUSION This review demonstrates that there is no conclusive evidence on the effectiveness of syndromic surveillance for the detection of waterborne outbreaks, thus suggesting the need to focus on primary prevention measures to reduce the risk of waterborne outbreaks. Future studies should investigate methods for combining health and environmental data with an assessment of needed financial and human resources for implementing such surveillance systems. In addition, a more critical thematic narrative synthesis on the most promising sources of data, and an assessment of the basis for arguments that joint analysis of different data or dimensions of data (e.g. spatial and temporal) might perform better, should be carried out. TRIAL REGISTRATION PROSPERO: International prospective register of systematic reviews. 2019. CRD42019122332 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Hyllestad
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Institute of Health and Society, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Ettore Amato
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Karin Nygård
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Line Vold
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Preben Aavitsland
- Department of Infection Control and Preparedness, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
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Kraay ANM, Man O, Levy MC, Levy K, Ionides E, Eisenberg JNS. Understanding the Impact of Rainfall on Diarrhea: Testing the Concentration-Dilution Hypothesis Using a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2020; 128:126001. [PMID: 33284047 PMCID: PMC7720804 DOI: 10.1289/ehp6181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Projected increases in extreme weather may change relationships between rain-related climate exposures and diarrheal disease. Whether rainfall increases or decreases diarrhea rates is unclear based on prior literature. The concentration-dilution hypothesis suggests that these conflicting results are explained by the background level of rain: Rainfall following dry periods can flush pathogens into surface water, increasing diarrhea incidence, whereas rainfall following wet periods can dilute pathogen concentrations in surface water, thereby decreasing diarrhea incidence. OBJECTIVES In this analysis, we explored the extent to which the concentration-dilution hypothesis is supported by published literature. METHODS To this end, we conducted a systematic search for articles assessing the relationship between rain, extreme rain, flood, drought, and season (rainy vs. dry) and diarrheal illness. RESULTS A total of 111 articles met our inclusion criteria. Overall, the literature largely supports the concentration-dilution hypothesis. In particular, extreme rain was associated with increased diarrhea when it followed a dry period [incidence rate ratio ( IRR ) = 1.26 ; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.05, 1.51], with a tendency toward an inverse association for extreme rain following wet periods, albeit nonsignificant, with one of four relevant studies showing a significant inverse association (IRR = 0.911 ; 95% CI: 0.771, 1.08). Incidences of bacterial and parasitic diarrhea were more common during rainy seasons, providing pathogen-specific support for a concentration mechanism, but rotavirus diarrhea showed the opposite association. Information on timing of cases within the rainy season (e.g., early vs. late) was lacking, limiting further analysis. We did not find a linear association between nonextreme rain exposures and diarrheal disease, but several studies found a nonlinear association with low and high rain both being associated with diarrhea. DISCUSSION Our meta-analysis suggests that the effect of rainfall depends on the antecedent conditions. Future studies should use standard, clearly defined exposure variables to strengthen understanding of the relationship between rainfall and diarrheal illness. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP6181.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia N. M. Kraay
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Olivia Man
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Morgan C. Levy
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
- School of Global Policy and Strategy, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Karen Levy
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Edward Ionides
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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Tirgar A, Aghalari Z, Sillanpää M, Dahms HU. A glance at one decade of water pollution research in Iranian environmental health journals. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD CONTAMINATION 2020. [DOI: 10.1186/s40550-020-00080-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Due to the importance of water, the negative effects of water pollution on human health and the lack of proper knowledge of the state of research in this regard, the purpose of this study was to analyse scientific publications on water pollution in Iranian journals of environmental health.
Methods
This cross-sectional study was conducted using a scientometric method over a ten-year period (2008–2017) on articles published in five specialised environmental health journals emphasising the issue of water pollution. Data were collected through a researcher-based checklist using the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) and the World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) recommendations. Data processing was done using descriptive statistics and VOSviewer software.
Results
A review of 1276 articles in specialised environmental health journals revealed that 33.7% of the articles were in the field of water. Physical and chemical factors in water were the main subjects of 21.4% of studies, and temperature and turbidity were the most important physical factors. Microbial agents in groundwater and surface water were the main subjects of 14.1% of the articles. The findings show that 55 of 430 articles related to water were written with contributions from 20 countries (including Iran), with the most contributions from researchers from Asia.
Conclusions
Good conditions do not exist to investigate the status of articles on water pollution in specialised environmental health journals in Iran over a ten-year period. Health policymakers should therefore provide mechanisms to encourage national researchers, especially environmental health professionals, by setting national research priorities on quality and water pollution to conduct studies in this regard.
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Regier PJ, González-Pinzón R, Van Horn DJ, Reale JK, Nichols J, Khandewal A. Water quality impacts of urban and non-urban arid-land runoff on the Rio Grande. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 729:138443. [PMID: 32498151 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Urban surface runoff from storms impacts the water quality dynamics of downstream ecosystems. While these effects are well-documented in mesic regions, they are not well constrained for arid watersheds, which sustain longer dry periods, receive intense but short-lived storms, and where stormwater drainage networks are generally isolated from sewage systems. We used a network of high-frequency in situ water quality sensors located along the Middle Rio Grande to determine surface runoff origins during storms and track rapid changes in physical, chemical, and biological components of water quality. Specific conductivity (SpCond) patterns were a reliable indicator of source, distinguishing between runoff events originating primarily in urban (SpCond sags) or non-urban (SpCond spikes) catchments. Urban events were characterized by high fluorescent dissolved organic matter (fDOM), low dissolved oxygen (including short-lived hypoxia <2 mg/L), smaller increases in turbidity and varied pH response. In contrast, non-urban events showed large turbidity spikes, smaller dissolved oxygen sags, and consistent pH sags. Principal component analysis distinguished urban and non-urban events by dividing physical and biogeochemical water quality parameters, and modeling of DO along the same reach demonstrated consistently higher oxygen demand for an urban event compared to a non-urban event. Based on our analysis, urban runoff poses more potential ecological harm, while non-urban runoff poses a larger problem for drinking water treatment. The comparison of our results to other reports of urban stormwater quality suggest that water quality responses to storm events in urban landscapes are consistent across a range of regional climates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Regier
- Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
| | - Ricardo González-Pinzón
- Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - David J Van Horn
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque 87131, USA
| | - Justin K Reale
- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Albuquerque District, Albuquerque 87109, USA
| | - Justin Nichols
- Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - Aashish Khandewal
- Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
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De Roos AJ, Kondo MC, Robinson LF, Rai A, Ryan M, Haas CN, Lojo J, Fagliano JA. Heavy precipitation, drinking water source, and acute gastrointestinal illness in Philadelphia, 2015-2017. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0229258. [PMID: 32092111 PMCID: PMC7039462 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Runoff from heavy precipitation events can lead to microbiological contamination of source waters for public drinking water supplies. Philadelphia is a city of interest for a study of waterborne acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI) because of frequent heavy precipitation, extensive impervious landcover, and combined sewer systems that lead to overflows. We conducted a time-series analysis of the association between heavy precipitation and AGI incidence in Philadelphia, served by drinking water from Delaware River and Schuylkill River source waters. AGI cases on each day during the study period (2015-2017) were captured through syndromic surveillance of patients' chief complaint upon presentation at local emergency departments. Daily precipitation was represented by measurements at the Philadelphia International Airport and by modeled precipitation within the watershed boundaries, and we also evaluated stream flowrate as a proxy of precipitation. We estimated the association using distributed lag nonlinear models, assuming a quasi-Poisson distribution of the outcome variable and with adjustment for potential confounding by seasonal and long-term time trends, ambient temperature, day-of-week, and major holidays. We observed an association between heavy precipitation and AGI incidence in Philadelphia that was primarily limited to the spring season, with significant increases in AGI that peaked from 8 to 16 days following a heavy precipitation event. For example, the increase in AGI incidence related to airport precipitation above the 95th percentile (vs no precipitation) during spring reached statistical significance on lag day 7, peaked on day 16 (102% increase, 95% confidence interval: 16%, 252%), and declined while remaining significantly elevated through day 28. Similar associations were observed in analyses of watershed-specific precipitation in relation to AGI cases within the populations served by drinking water from each river. Our results suggest that heavy precipitation events in Philadelphia result in detectable local increases in waterborne AGI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneclaire J. De Roos
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Michelle C. Kondo
- Northern Research Station, United States Department of Agriculture—Forest Service, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Lucy F. Robinson
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Arjita Rai
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Michael Ryan
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Charles N. Haas
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - José Lojo
- Division of Disease Control, Philadelphia Department of Public Health, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jerald A. Fagliano
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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Jagai JS, Krajewski AK, Jimenez MP, Murphy MS, Leibowitz SG, Lobdell DT. Watershed integrity and associations with gastrointestinal illness in the United States. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2019; 17:978-988. [PMID: 31850904 PMCID: PMC10439500 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2019.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) illnesses are associated with various environmental factors, such as water quality, stormwater runoff, agricultural runoff, sewer overflows, and wastewater treatment plant effluents. However, rather than assessing an individual factor alone, two indices incorporating a combination of ecological and environmental stressors were created to represent (1) overall watershed integrity, Index of Watershed Integrity (IWI) and (2) catchment integrity, Index of Catchment Integrity (ICI). These indices could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how watershed/catchment integrity potentially impact the rates of GI illness, compared to assessing an individual stressor alone. We utilized the IWI and ICI, as well as agricultural and urban land uses, to assess associations at the county level with the rates of GI illness in a population of adults over 65 years of age. Our findings demonstrated that both watershed and catchment integrity are associated with reduced hospitalizations for any GI outcomes, though association varied by urbanicity. We believe that improved versions of the IWI and ICI may potentially be useful indicators for public health analyses in other circumstances, particularly when considering rural areas or to capture the complex stressors impacting the ecological health of a watershed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyotsna S Jagai
- School of Public Health, Division of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA E-mail:
| | - Alison K Krajewski
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environment Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Monica P Jimenez
- Oak Ridge Associated Universities Student Services Contractor at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environment Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | | | - Scott G Leibowitz
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Western Ecology Division, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Danelle T Lobdell
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Environmental Public Health Division, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Gronlund CJ, Cameron L, Shea C, O’Neill MS. Assessing the magnitude and uncertainties of the burden of selected diseases attributable to extreme heat and extreme precipitation under a climate change scenario in Michigan for the period 2041-2070. Environ Health 2019; 18:40. [PMID: 31029138 PMCID: PMC6487044 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-019-0483-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extreme heat (EH) and extreme precipitation (EP) events are expected to increase with climate change in many parts of the world. Characterizing the potential future morbidity and mortality burden of EH and EP and associated costs, as well as uncertainties in the estimates, can identify areas for public health intervention and inform adaptation strategies. We demonstrate a burden of disease and uncertainty assessment using data from Michigan, USA, and provide approaches for deriving these estimates for locations lacking certain data inputs. METHODS Case-crossover analysis adapted from previous Michigan-specific modeling was used to characterize the historical EH-mortality relationship by county poverty rate and age group. Historical EH-associated hospitalization and emergency room visit risks from the literature were adapted to Michigan. In the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's BenMAP software, we used a novel approach, with multiple spatially-varying exposures, to estimate all non-accidental mortality and morbidity occurring on EH days (EH days; days where maximum temperature 32.2-35 C or > 35 C) and EP days. We did so for two time periods: the "historical" period (1971-2000), and the "projected" period (2041-2070), by county. RESULTS The rate of all non-accidental mortality associated with EH days increased from 0.46/100,000 persons historically to 2.9/100,000 in the projected period, for 240 EH-attributable deaths annually. EH-associated ED visits increased from 12/100,000 persons to 68/100,000 persons, for 7800 EH-attributable emergency department visits. EP-associated ED visits increased minimally from 1.7 to 1.9/100,000 persons. Mortality and morbidity were highest among those aged 65+ (91% of all deaths). Projected health costs are dominated by EH-associated mortality ($280 million) and EH-associated emergency department visits ($14 million). A variety of sources contribute to a moderate-to-high degree of uncertainty around the point estimates, including uncertainty in the magnitude of climate change, population composition, baseline health rates, and exposure-response estimates. CONCLUSIONS The approach applied here showed that health burden due to climate may significantly rise for all Michigan counties by midcentury. The costs to health care and uncertainties in the estimates, given the potential for substantial attributable burden, provide additional information to guide adaptation measures for EH and EP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina J. Gronlund
- Center for Social Epidemiology and Population Health, University of Michigan School of Public Health, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2029 USA
| | - Lorraine Cameron
- Michigan Climate and Health Adaptation Program, Division of Environmental Health, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, 333 S. Grand Ave, Lansing, MI 48909 USA
| | - Claire Shea
- Michigan Climate and Health Adaptation Program, Division of Environmental Health, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, 333 S. Grand Ave, Lansing, MI 48909 USA
| | - Marie S. O’Neill
- Departments of Epidemiology and Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2029 USA
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Feleke H, Medhin G, Kloos H, Gangathulasi J, Asrat D. Household-stored drinking water quality among households of under-five children with and without acute diarrhea in towns of Wegera District, in North Gondar, Northwest Ethiopia. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2018; 190:669. [PMID: 30353421 PMCID: PMC6208974 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-018-7033-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Contamination of drinking water in household water storage containers and inadequate water supplies are common public burdens in low- and middle-income countries, including towns in Wegera District, Ethiopia. Our study aimed to assess the quality of drinking water and identify factors associated with diarrhea in households with under-five (U5) children with and without diarrhea in Ambagiorgis and Gedebge towns in Wegera District. Stored drinking water samples from households with U5 children with and without diarrhea had fecal coliform (FC) counts of 59 (86.8%) and 55 (82.1%) (p > 0.05) and fecal streptococci (FS) counts of 29 (42.7%) and 24 (35.8%) (p > 0.05), respectively. The very high sanitary risk scores were 32 (47.1%) and 21 (31.3%) for FC (p > 0.05); 25 (36.8%) and 3 (4.5%) for FS (p < 0.001), respectively. Contamination of the stored drinking water samples with FS was significantly higher in households with diarrhetic U5 children in the low- and medium-risk ranges (p < 0.05). Water turbidity of 47 (69.1%) and 23 (34.3%) in households with U5 children with and without diarrhea, respectively, was above the permissible level (p < 0.001). The residual free chlorine (RFC) in all the household-stored drinking water samples was below the World Health Organization (WHO) permissible level and temperatures of all the household-stored drinking water samples were permissible. Promotion and advocacy of good stored drinking water handling practices are essential for decreasing the high risk of microbial contamination in both study areas. We recommend education interventions targeting personal hygiene and drinking water handling at the household level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailemariam Feleke
- Ethiopian Institute of Water Resources, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
| | - Girmay Medhin
- Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Helmut Kloos
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Daniel Asrat
- Faculty of Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Ribeiro MR, de Abreu LC, Laporta GZ. Drinking water and rural schools in the Western Amazon: an environmental intervention study. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4993. [PMID: 29922512 PMCID: PMC6005166 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although water and sanitation are considered human rights, worldwide approximately three of 10 people (2.1 billion) do not have access to safe drinking water. In 2016, 5.6 million students were enrolled in the 34% of Brazilian schools located in rural areas, but only 72% had a public water supply network. The objective was to evaluate effectiveness of environmental intervention for water treatment in rural schools of the Western Amazonia, and determine the efficacy of water treatment using a simplified chlorinator on potability standards for turbidity, fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli. Methods A simplified chlorinator was installed for treatment of potable water in 20 public schools in the rural area of Rio Branco municipality, Acre state, Brazil. Results Before the intervention, 20% (n = 4), 100% (n = 20) and 70% (n = 14) of schools had water that failed to meet potability standards for turbidity, fecal coliforms and E. coli, respectively. However, after intervention, 70% (p = 0.68), 75% (p < 0.001) and 100% (p < 0.001) of schools complied with potability standards. Discussion This intervention considerably improved schools' water quality, thus decreasing children's health vulnerability due to inadequate water. Ancillary activities including training, educational lectures, installation of equipment, supply of materials and supplies (65% calcium hypochlorite and reagents) were considered fundamental to achieving success full outcomes. Installation of a simplified chlorinator in rural schools of the Western Amazon is therefore proposed as a social technology aiming at social inclusion, as well as economic and environmental sustainability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maura Regina Ribeiro
- Setor de Pós-graduação, Pesquisa e Inovação, Faculdade de Medicina do ABC, Santo André, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Carlos de Abreu
- Setor de Pós-graduação, Pesquisa e Inovação, Faculdade de Medicina do ABC, Santo André, São Paulo, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Políticas Públicas e Desenvolvimento Local, EMESCAM, Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Zorello Laporta
- Setor de Pós-graduação, Pesquisa e Inovação, Faculdade de Medicina do ABC, Santo André, São Paulo, Brazil.,Centro de Engenharia, Modelagem e Ciências Sociais Aplicadas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, São Paulo, Brazil
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Wang M, Tian Y, Zhao X, Li X. The application of an efficient modified decolorizer in coagulation treatment of high color reclaimed water. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2018; 77:2190-2203. [PMID: 29757171 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2018.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
High color concentrations in inflows at reclaimed water treatment plants are typically considered as emergency situations, which must be solved using an appropriate decolorizing process. Using the decoloration mechanism of a modified dicyandiamide-formaldehyde polymer (DFP), a urea-formaldehyde polymer and a melamine-formaldehyde polymer (MFP) were prepared with ammonium chloride and ammonium sulfate as the modifiers. An orthogonal experiment indicated that a modified urea-formaldehyde polymer had no effect on decolorization; however, the MFP modified by ammonium chloride in number 16 (MMFP-C16), the DFP modified by ammonium chloride in number 9 (MDFP-C9) and modified by ammonium sulfate in number 6 (MDFP-S6) were successful. The removal rates were above 50% in acidic and reactive dye reclaimed water. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to microscopically analyze the differences in decolorization effect among the polymers. The effect of pH on decolorization was analyzed. Compared to the MDFP-C9 and MDFP-S6, the MMFP-C16 was not sensitive to changes in conditions. The pilot plant test proved that the three optimal decolorizers also had a good decolorizing effect, and MMFP-C16 was better both at decolorizing and floc sedimentation. Thus, the latter can be considered as an efficient modified decolorizer for rapid treatment of high color reclaimed water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengqi Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Haihe Education Park, Tianjin 300350, China E-mail:
| | - Yimei Tian
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Haihe Education Park, Tianjin 300350, China E-mail:
| | - Xin Zhao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Haihe Education Park, Tianjin 300350, China E-mail:
| | - Xiang Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Haihe Education Park, Tianjin 300350, China E-mail:
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Beaudeau P. A Systematic Review of the Time Series Studies Addressing the Endemic Risk of Acute Gastroenteritis According to Drinking Water Operation Conditions in Urban Areas of Developed Countries. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15050867. [PMID: 29701701 PMCID: PMC5981906 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15050867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Time series studies (TSS) can be viewed as an inexpensive way to tackle the non-epidemic health risk from fecal pathogens in tap water in urban areas. Following the PRISMA recommendations, I reviewed TSS addressing the endemic risk of acute gastroenteritis risk according to drinking water operation conditions in urban areas of developed countries. Eighteen studies were included, covering 17 urban sites (seven in North-America and 10 in Europe) with study populations ranging from 50,000 to 9 million people. Most studies used general practitioner consultations or visits to hospitals for acute gastroenteritis (AGE) as health outcomes. In 11 of the 17 sites, a significant and plausible association was found between turbidity (or particle count) in finished water and the AGE indicator. When provided and significant, the interquartile excess of relative risk estimates ranged from 3–13%. When examined, water temperature, river flow, and produced flow were strongly associated with the AGE indicator. The potential of TSS for the study of the health risk from fecal pathogens in tap water is limited by the lack of specificity of turbidity and its site-sensitive value as an exposure proxy. Nevertheless, at the DWS level, TSS could help water operators to identify operational conditions most at risk, almost if considering other water operation indicators, in addition to turbidity, as possible relevant proxies for exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Beaudeau
- Santé Publique France, 14 rue du Val-d'Osne, 94415 Saint-Maurice CEDEX, France.
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13
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Climate change-induced increases in precipitation are reducing the potential for solar ultraviolet radiation to inactivate pathogens in surface waters. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13033. [PMID: 29026153 PMCID: PMC5638896 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13392-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change is accelerating the release of dissolved organic matter (DOM) to inland and coastal waters through increases in precipitation, thawing of permafrost, and changes in vegetation. Our modeling approach suggests that the selective absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) by DOM decreases the valuable ecosystem service wherein sunlight inactivates waterborne pathogens. Here we highlight the sensitivity of waterborne pathogens of humans and wildlife to solar UV, and use the DNA action spectrum to model how differences in water transparency and incident sunlight alter the ability of UV to inactivate waterborne pathogens. A case study demonstrates how heavy precipitation events can reduce the solar inactivation potential in Lake Michigan, which provides drinking water to over 10 million people. These data suggest that widespread increases in DOM and consequent browning of surface waters reduce the potential for solar UV inactivation of pathogens, and increase exposure to infectious diseases in humans and wildlife.
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De Roos AJ, Gurian PL, Robinson LF, Rai A, Zakeri I, Kondo MC. Review of Epidemiological Studies of Drinking-Water Turbidity in Relation to Acute Gastrointestinal Illness. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:086003. [PMID: 28886603 PMCID: PMC5882241 DOI: 10.1289/ehp1090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Turbidity has been used as an indicator of microbiological contamination of drinking water in time-series studies attempting to discern the presence of waterborne gastrointestinal illness; however, the utility of turbidity as a proxy exposure measure has been questioned. OBJECTIVES We conducted a review of epidemiological studies of the association between turbidity of drinking-water supplies and incidence of acute gastrointestinal illness (AGI), including a synthesis of the overall weight of evidence. Our goal was to evaluate the potential for causal inference from the studies. METHODS We identified 14 studies on the topic (distinct by region, time period and/or population). We evaluated each study with regard to modeling approaches, potential biases, and the strength of evidence. We also considered consistencies and differences in the collective results. DISCUSSION Positive associations between drinking-water turbidity and AGI incidence were found in different cities and time periods, and with both unfiltered and filtered supplies. There was some evidence for a stronger association at higher turbidity levels. The studies appeared to adequately adjust for confounding. There was fair consistency in the notable lags between turbidity measurement and AGI identification, which fell between 6 and 10 d in many studies. CONCLUSIONS The observed associations suggest a detectable incidence of waterborne AGI from drinking water in the systems and time periods studied. However, some discrepant results indicate that the association may be context specific. Combining turbidity with seasonal and climatic factors, additional water quality measures, and treatment data may enhance predictive modeling in future studies. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1090.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneclaire J De Roos
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Patrick L Gurian
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Drexel University , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Lucy F Robinson
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Arjita Rai
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Issa Zakeri
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Dornsife School of Public Health, Drexel University , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Michelle C Kondo
- Northern Research Station, Forest Service, U S. Department of Agriculture (USDA Forest Service) , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Lall R, Abdelnabi J, Ngai S, Parton HB, Saunders K, Sell J, Wahnich A, Weiss D, Mathes RW. Advancing the Use of Emergency Department Syndromic Surveillance Data, New York City, 2012-2016. Public Health Rep 2017; 132:23S-30S. [PMID: 28692384 DOI: 10.1177/0033354917711183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The use of syndromic surveillance has expanded from its initial purpose of bioterrorism detection. We present 6 use cases from New York City that demonstrate the value of syndromic surveillance for public health response and decision making across a broad range of health outcomes: synthetic cannabinoid drug use, heat-related illness, suspected meningococcal disease, medical needs after severe weather, asthma exacerbation after a building collapse, and Ebola-like illness in travelers returning from West Africa. MATERIALS AND METHODS The New York City syndromic surveillance system receives data on patient visits from all emergency departments (EDs) in the city. The data are used to assign syndrome categories based on the chief complaint and discharge diagnosis, and analytic methods are used to monitor geographic and temporal trends and detect clusters. RESULTS For all 6 use cases, syndromic surveillance using ED data provided actionable information. Syndromic surveillance helped detect a rise in synthetic cannabinoid-related ED visits, prompting a public health investigation and action. Surveillance of heat-related illness indicated increasing health effects of severe weather and led to more urgent public health messaging. Surveillance of meningitis-related ED visits helped identify unreported cases of culture-negative meningococcal disease. Syndromic surveillance also proved useful for assessing a surge of methadone-related ED visits after Superstorm Sandy, provided reassurance of no localized increases in asthma after a building collapse, and augmented traditional disease reporting during the West African Ebola outbreak. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS Sharing syndromic surveillance use cases can foster new ideas and build capacity for public health preparedness and response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramona Lall
- 1 Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Jasmine Abdelnabi
- 1 Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Stephanie Ngai
- 1 Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Hilary B Parton
- 1 Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Kelly Saunders
- 1 Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Jessica Sell
- 1 Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Amanda Wahnich
- 1 Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Don Weiss
- 1 Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Queens, NY, USA
| | - Robert W Mathes
- 1 Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Queens, NY, USA
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Bylund J, Toljander J, Lysén M, Rasti N, Engqvist J, Simonsson M. Measuring sporadic gastrointestinal illness associated with drinking water - an overview of methodologies. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2017; 15:321-340. [PMID: 28598337 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2017.261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
There is an increasing awareness that drinking water contributes to sporadic gastrointestinal illness (GI) in high income countries of the northern hemisphere. A literature search was conducted in order to review: (1) methods used for investigating the effects of public drinking water on GI; (2) evidence of possible dose-response relationship between sporadic GI and drinking water consumption; and (3) association between sporadic GI and factors affecting drinking water quality. Seventy-four articles were selected, key findings and information gaps were identified. In-home intervention studies have only been conducted in areas using surface water sources and intervention studies in communities supplied by ground water are therefore needed. Community-wide intervention studies may constitute a cost-effective alternative to in-home intervention studies. Proxy data that correlate with GI in the community can be used for detecting changes in the incidence of GI. Proxy data can, however, not be used for measuring the prevalence of illness. Local conditions affecting water safety may vary greatly, making direct comparisons between studies difficult unless sufficient knowledge about these conditions is acquired. Drinking water in high-income countries contributes to endemic levels of GI and there are public health benefits for further improvements of drinking water safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Bylund
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Jonas Toljander
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Maria Lysén
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Niloofar Rasti
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Jannes Engqvist
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
| | - Magnus Simonsson
- National Food Agency, Box 622, Uppsala SE-751 26, Sweden E-mail:
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Effect of drinking water source on associations between gastrointestinal illness and heavy rainfall in New Jersey. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173794. [PMID: 28282467 PMCID: PMC5345866 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal illness (GI) has been associated with heavy rainfall. Storm events and periods of heavy rainfall and runoff can result in increased microbiological contaminants in raw water. Surface water supplies are open to the environment and runoff can directly influence the presence of contaminants. A time-stratified bi-directional case-crossover study design was used to estimate associations of heavy rainfall and hospitalizations for GI. Cases of GI were identified as in-patient hospitalization with a primary diagnosis of infectious disease associated diarrhea [ICD-9 codes: specified gastrointestinal infections 001–009.9 or diarrhea 787.91] among the residents of New Jersey from 2009 to 2013 resulting in a final sample size of 47,527 cases. Two control days were selected on the same days of the week as the case day, within fixed 21-day strata. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios controlling for temperature and humidity. To determine potential effect modification estimates were stratified by season (warm or cold) and drinking water source (groundwater, surface water, or ‘other’ category). Stratified analyses by drinking water source and season identified positive associations of rainfall and GI hospitalizations in surface water systems during the warm season with no lag (OR = 1.12, 95% CI 1.05–1.19) and a 2-day lag (OR = 1.09, 95% CI 1.03–1.16). Positive associations in ‘Other’ water source areas (served by very small community water systems, private wells, or unknown) during the warm season with a 4-day lag were also found. However, there were no statistically significant positive associations in groundwater systems during the warm season. The results suggest that water systems with surface water sources can play an important role in preventing GI hospitalizations during and immediately following heavy rainfall. Regulators should work with water system providers to develop system specific prevention techniques to limit the impact of heavy rainfall on public health.
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