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Kang L, Ikeda SI, Yang Y, Jeong H, Chen J, Zhang Y, Negishi K, Tsubota K, Kurihara T. Establishment of a novel ER-stress induced myopia model in mice. EYE AND VISION (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2023; 10:44. [PMID: 37907982 PMCID: PMC10619234 DOI: 10.1186/s40662-023-00361-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent studies have indicated a strong correlation between endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and myopia and that eyedrops containing the ER stress inducer tunicamycin (Tm) can induce myopic changes in C57BL/6 J mice. Therefore, this study aimed to create a new myopia model using Tm eyedrops and to explore the mechanism of ER stress-mediated myopia development. METHODS Three-week-old C57BL/6 J mice were treated with different concentrations (0, 25, 50, and 100 μg/mL) and/or number of applications (zero, one, three, and seven) of Tm eyedrops. Refraction and axial length (AL) were measured before and one week after Tm treatment. Scleral collagen alterations were evaluated under polarised light after picrosirius red staining. ER stress-related indicators, such as the expression of collagen I and cleaved collagen were detected using Western blotting. RESULTS Compared with the control group, mice administered eyedrops with 50 μg/mL Tm only once showed the greatest myopic shifts in refraction and AL elongation and reduced scleral expression of collagen I. Picrosirius red staining showed a lower percentage of bundled collagen in the Tm group. Expression of ER-stress indicators increased in the Tm groups. Furthermore, optimised administration of Tm induced matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) expression in the sclera, which plays a major role in collagen degradation. CONCLUSIONS We have demonstrated that ER stress in the sclera is involved in myopia progression. Tm eyedrops induced myopic changes, loosening of the scleral collagen and decreased expression of collagen I. This process may be associated with ER stress in the sclera, which upregulates the expression of MMP2 leading to collagen degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longdan Kang
- Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, 110001, China
| | - Shin-Ichi Ikeda
- Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Yajing Yang
- Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Heonuk Jeong
- Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Junhan Chen
- Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Yan Zhang
- Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Kazuno Negishi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Kazuo Tsubota
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.
- Tsubota Laboratory, Inc., 34 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-0016, Japan.
| | - Toshihide Kurihara
- Laboratory of Photobiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.
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Goto S, Zhang Y, Vyas SA, Zhu Q, Wildsoet CF. Changes in Expression in BMP2 and Two Closely Related Genes in Guinea Pig Retinal Pigment Epithelium during Induction and Recovery from Myopia. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1373. [PMID: 37759773 PMCID: PMC10526436 DOI: 10.3390/biom13091373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE We previously reported differential gene expression of the bone morphogenetic protein 2 (Bmp2) in guinea pig retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) after 1 day of hyperopic defocus, imposed with a negative contact lens (CLs). The study reported here sought to obtain insights into the temporal profiles of gene expression changes in Bmp2, as well as those of two closely related genes, the inhibitor of DNA binding 3 (Id3) and Noggin (Nog), both during myopia induction and when the CL treatment was terminated to allow recovery from induced myopia. METHODS To induce myopia, 2-week-old pigmented guinea pigs (New Zealand strain, n = 8) wore monocular -10 diopter (D) rigid gas-permeable (RGP) CLs for one week, while the other eye served as a control. Ocular measurements were made at baseline, 3 days, and 7 days after the initiation of CL wear, with treatment then being terminated and additional measurements being made after a further 3 days, 1 week, and 2 weeks. Spherical equivalent refractive errors (SERs), axial length (AL), choroidal thickness (ChT), and scleral thickness (ScT) data were collected using retinoscopy, optical biometry (Lenstar), and spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), respectively. RPE samples were collected from both eyes of the guinea pigs after either 1 day or 1 week of CL wear or 1 day or 2 weeks after its termination, and RNA was subsequently isolated and subjected to quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analyses, targeting the Bmp2, Id3, and Nog genes. RESULTS Mean interocular differences (treated-control) in AL and SER were significantly different from baseline after 3 and 7 days of CL wear, consistent with induced myopia (p < 0.001 for all cases). Termination of CL wear resulted in the normalization (i.e., recovery) of the ALs and SERs of the treated eyes within 7 days, and the earlier significant ChT thinning with CL wear (p = 0004, day 7) was replaced by rapid thickening, which remained significant on day 7 (p = 0.009) but had normalized by day 14. The ChT changes were much smaller in magnitude than the AL changes in both phases. Interocular differences in the ScT showed no significant changes. The Bmp2 and Id3 genes were both significantly downregulated with CL wear, after 1 day (p = 0.012 and 0.016) and 7 days (p = 0.002 and 0.005), while Bmp2 gene expression increased and Nog gene expression decreased after the termination of CL wear, albeit transiently, which was significant on 1 day (p = 0.004 and 0.04) but not 2 weeks later. No change in Id3 gene expression was observed over the latter period. Conclusions: The above patterns of myopia induction and recovery validate this negative RGP-CL model as an alternative to traditional spectacle lens models for guinea pigs. The defocus-driven, sign-dependent changes in the expression of the Bmp2 gene in guinea pig RPE are consistent with observations in chicks and demonstrate the important role of BMP2 in eye growth regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- So Goto
- Herbert Wertheim School Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita 565-0871, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology, National Hospital Organization, Tokyo Medical Center, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8902, Japan
| | - Yan Zhang
- Herbert Wertheim School Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Sonal Aswin Vyas
- Herbert Wertheim School Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Qiurong Zhu
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Christine F. Wildsoet
- Herbert Wertheim School Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Wen Y, Dai B, Zhang X, Zhu H, Xie C, Xia J, Sun Y, Zhu M, Tong J, Shen Y. Retinal Transcriptomics Analysis Reveals the Underlying Mechanism of Disturbed Emmetropization Induced by Wavelength Defocus. Curr Eye Res 2022; 47:908-917. [PMID: 35225751 DOI: 10.1080/02713683.2022.2048395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Wavelength signals play a vital role in refractive development. This study aimed to explore the retinal transcriptome signature in these processes. METHODS Guinea pigs were randomly divided into three groups exposed to white, blue, or green environmental light for eight weeks. Refraction and axial length were evaluated every 4 weeks, and the retinal transcriptome was profiled at 8 weeks. RESULTS Compared with the white group, ocular refraction significantly decreased and ocular axial length significantly extended in the green group whereas these parameters showed opposite trends in the blue group. RNA-sequencing showed that, compared with the white group, 184 and 171 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were found in the blue and green groups, respectively. Among these DEGs, only 31 overlapped. These two sets of DEGs were enriched in distinct biological processes and pathways. There were 268 DEGs between the blue and green groups, which were primarily enriched in the extracellular matrix, and metabolism, receptor activity, and ion binding processes. In addition, nine human genes, including ECEL1, CHRND, SHBG, PRSS56, OVOL1, RDH5, WNT7B, PEBP4, CA12, were identified to be related to myopia development and wavelength response, indicating the potential role of these genes in human wavelength-induced myopia. CONCLUSIONS In this study, we identified retinal targets and pathways involved in the response to wavelength signals in emmetropization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Wen
- Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Binbin Dai
- Department of Ophthalmology, Taizhou Hospital, Taizhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xuhong Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Hong Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Chen Xie
- Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jianhua Xia
- Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yuan Sun
- Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Miaomiao Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jianping Tong
- Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ye Shen
- Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Clinical Research Center, First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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Qi J, He W, Meng J, Wei L, Qian D, Lu Y, Zhu X. Distribution of Ocular Anterior and Posterior Segment Lengths Among a Cataract Surgical Population in Shanghai. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:688805. [PMID: 34631728 PMCID: PMC8494767 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.688805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To investigate the distributions of the ocular anterior and posterior segment lengths among a cataract surgical population in Shanghai. Design: Cross-sectional study. Methods: Ocular biometric parameters of 23,462 eyes of 23,462 cataract surgery candidates were reviewed. Axial length (AL), anterior chamber depth (ACD), and lens thickness (LT) were obtained using IOL Master. Anterior segment length (ASL = ACD + LT), posterior segment length (PSL = AL - ASL) and the ratio of ASL to PSL (ASL/PSL) were calculated. Results: The mean ASL was 7.58 ± 0.39 mm, the mean PSL was 17.12 ± 2.64 mm. As the age grew, the ASL increased, and PSL increased firstly then decreased. Male subjects tended to have significantly longer ASL and shorter PSL than female subjects. With the increasing AL, the ASL was firstly decreased to trough at 20-22 mm AL group, then increased gradually, while the PSL increased rapidly. The ASL correlated positively with AL in normal, moderate and highly myopic eyes, negatively in short eyes. The PSL correlated positively with AL across the entire study population. The ASL/PSL was not constant in the eyes with different AL but had a relatively steep downward trend with the increasing AL in the short eyes, then decreased smoothly in normal, moderate and highly myopic eyes. Conclusions: In Chinese cataractous eyes, longer ASL and shorter PSL were associated with elder age and male gender. The change of ASL over AL was not linear, and the ASL was smallest in the eyes with AL of 20-22 mm. The elongation of the eyeball was mainly due to the extension of the posterior segment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiao Qi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai High Myopia Study Group, Shanghai, China.,Visual Rehabilitation Professional Committee, Chinese Association of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenwen He
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai High Myopia Study Group, Shanghai, China.,Visual Rehabilitation Professional Committee, Chinese Association of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiaqi Meng
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai High Myopia Study Group, Shanghai, China.,Visual Rehabilitation Professional Committee, Chinese Association of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ling Wei
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai High Myopia Study Group, Shanghai, China.,Visual Rehabilitation Professional Committee, Chinese Association of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Dongjin Qian
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai High Myopia Study Group, Shanghai, China.,Visual Rehabilitation Professional Committee, Chinese Association of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Lu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai High Myopia Study Group, Shanghai, China.,Visual Rehabilitation Professional Committee, Chinese Association of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiangjia Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Myopia, Ministry of Health, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai High Myopia Study Group, Shanghai, China.,Visual Rehabilitation Professional Committee, Chinese Association of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Kumari B, Ali A, Sharma AK, Gehlot A, Sharma S. Non-invasive saliva-based screening of high-risk Human Papilloma Virus 16 and 18 in healthy young adults and creating awareness about its vaccination. J Family Med Prim Care 2021; 10:387-391. [PMID: 34017758 PMCID: PMC8132784 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1669_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Context: Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) has not only been linked with cervical cancer but also a key player in other types including oral cancer. Vaccine against HPV has shown promising outcomes in protection against cervical cancer. It is suggested that the same vaccine may be a safeguard against oral cancer as well. Since prevalence of oral cancer is on rise because of various reasons besides high-risk sexual behavior, its prevention becomes equally important. Aim: Study aimed at screening saliva samples of healthy young adults to detect the presence of HPV with an intention to increase awareness regarding HPV and its vaccination. Settings and Design: The study was executed in the department of Biochemistry, AIIMS, Patna. This cross-sectional study included 100 consented healthy undergraduate medical and nursing students. Methods and Material: We isolated DNA from all saliva samples, amplified using multiplex PCR and gel electrophoresed to screen HPV 16 and 18. Feedback about the study in creating awareness regarding HPV and its vaccine was conducted using three-point Likert scale. Statistical analysis: The collected responses were entered in Microsoft excel. The results were expressed in frequency and percentages. Results: All saliva samples screened were found negative for HPV 16 and 18 DNA. Responses from feedback showed improved knowledge and awareness about the HPV and its vaccine among the participants. Conclusion: Even all the saliva samples tested were found negative for HPV DNA, the screening of high-risk HPV in saliva of young medical and nursing students generated curiosity among them to know more about HPV and its vaccine. This exercise may have helped in increasing the acceptance of HPV vaccine and the awareness of getting it at their ideal age to be benefited with dual protection, from oral and cervical (in case of females) cancers lifelong.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bandana Kumari
- Department of Biochemistry All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar, India
| | - Asgar Ali
- Department of Biochemistry All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar, India
| | - Abhay K Sharma
- Department of Biochemistry All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar, India
| | - Aishwarya Gehlot
- Department of Biochemistry All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar, India
| | - Sadhana Sharma
- Department of Biochemistry All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Patna, Bihar, India
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Bian J, Sze YH, Tse DYY, To CH, McFadden SA, Lam CSY, Li KK, Lam TC. SWATH Based Quantitative Proteomics Reveals Significant Lipid Metabolism in Early Myopic Guinea Pig Retina. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4721. [PMID: 33946922 PMCID: PMC8124159 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of the previous myopic animal studies employed a single-candidate approach and lower resolution proteomics approaches that were difficult to detect minor changes, and generated limited systems-wide biological information. Hence, a complete picture of molecular events in the retina involving myopic development is lacking. Here, to investigate comprehensive retinal protein alternations and underlying molecular events in the early myopic stage, we performed a data-independent Sequential Window Acquisition of all Theoretical Mass Spectra (SWATH) based proteomic analysis coupled with different bioinformatics tools in pigmented guinea pigs after 4-day lens-induced myopia (LIM). Myopic eyes compared to untreated contralateral control eyes caused significant changes in refractive error and choroid thickness (p < 0.05, n = 5). Relative elongation of axial length and the vitreous chamber depth were also observed. Using pooled samples from all individuals (n = 10) to build a species-specific retinal ion library for SWATH analysis, 3202 non-redundant proteins (with 24,616 peptides) were identified at 1% global FDR. For quantitative analysis, the 10 individual retinal samples (5 pairs) were analyzed using a high resolution Triple-TOF 6600 mass spectrometry (MS) with technical replicates. In total, 37 up-regulated and 21 down-regulated proteins were found significantly changed after LIM treatment (log2 ratio (T/C) > 0.26 or < -0.26; p ≤ 0.05). Data are accepted via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD025003. Through Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA), "lipid metabolism" was found as the top function associated with the differentially expressed proteins. Based on the protein abundance and peptide sequences, expression patterns of two regulated proteins (SLC6A6 and PTGES2) identified in this pathway were further successfully validated with high confidence (p < 0.05) using a novel Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM) assay on a QTRAP 6500+ MS. In summary, through an integrated discovery and targeted proteomic approach, this study serves as the first report to detect and confirm novel retinal protein changes and significant biological functions in the early LIM mammalian guinea pigs. The study provides new workflow and insights for further research to myopia control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingfang Bian
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; (J.B.); (Y.-H.S.); (D.Y.-Y.T.); (C.-H.T.); (C.S.-Y.L.); (K.-K.L.)
| | - Ying-Hon Sze
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; (J.B.); (Y.-H.S.); (D.Y.-Y.T.); (C.-H.T.); (C.S.-Y.L.); (K.-K.L.)
| | - Dennis Yan-Yin Tse
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; (J.B.); (Y.-H.S.); (D.Y.-Y.T.); (C.-H.T.); (C.S.-Y.L.); (K.-K.L.)
- Centre for Eye and Vision Research (CEVR), 17W Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chi-Ho To
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; (J.B.); (Y.-H.S.); (D.Y.-Y.T.); (C.-H.T.); (C.S.-Y.L.); (K.-K.L.)
- Centre for Eye and Vision Research (CEVR), 17W Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong, China
| | - Sally A. McFadden
- School of Psychology, College of Engineering, Science and the Environment, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Carly Siu-Yin Lam
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; (J.B.); (Y.-H.S.); (D.Y.-Y.T.); (C.-H.T.); (C.S.-Y.L.); (K.-K.L.)
- Centre for Eye and Vision Research (CEVR), 17W Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong, China
| | - King-Kit Li
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; (J.B.); (Y.-H.S.); (D.Y.-Y.T.); (C.-H.T.); (C.S.-Y.L.); (K.-K.L.)
| | - Thomas Chuen Lam
- Centre for Myopia Research, School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; (J.B.); (Y.-H.S.); (D.Y.-Y.T.); (C.-H.T.); (C.S.-Y.L.); (K.-K.L.)
- Centre for Eye and Vision Research (CEVR), 17W Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Shenzhen 518052, China
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Decreased choroidal and scleral thicknesses in highly myopic eyes with posterior staphyloma. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7987. [PMID: 33846467 PMCID: PMC8041899 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87065-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In this cross-sectional study, we investigated choroidal thickness (CT) and scleral thickness (ST) in highly myopic eyes and their associations with ocular factors. Patients underwent widefield swept-source optical coherence tomography (OCT) to measure the CT and ST at the subfovea and 3000 μm superior, inferior, temporal, and nasal to the fovea and macular curvature. A total of 237 eyes (154 patients) were included. At all five measurement points, thinner CTs and STs were associated with longer axial lengths (r = − 0.548 to − 0.357, all P < 0.001) and greater macular curvatures (r = − 0.542 to − 0.305, all P < 0.001). The CT and ST were significantly thinner in eyes with posterior staphyloma than in those without at all measurement points (all P ≤ 0.006) but did not differ between eyes with the wide macular and narrow macular type of staphyloma. Eyes with myopic maculopathy of category ≥ 3 according to the International Meta-Analysis for Pathologic Myopia classification had significantly thinner CTs and STs than those with category ≤ 2 (all P ≤ 0.005). In highly myopic eyes, a decrease in the CT and ST was more pronounced in eyes with more structural changes, such as longer axial length, steeper macular curvature, and the presence of posterior staphyloma.
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Halloran D, Durbano HW, Nohe A. Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 in Development and Bone Homeostasis. J Dev Biol 2020; 8:E19. [PMID: 32933207 PMCID: PMC7557435 DOI: 10.3390/jdb8030019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are multi-functional growth factors belonging to the Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) superfamily. These proteins are essential to many developmental processes, including cardiogenesis, neurogenesis, and osteogenesis. Specifically, within the BMP family, Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 (BMP-2) was the first BMP to be characterized and has been well-studied. BMP-2 has important roles during embryonic development, as well as bone remodeling and homeostasis in adulthood. Some of its specific functions include digit formation and activating osteogenic genes, such as Runt-Related Transcription Factor 2 (RUNX2). Because of its diverse functions and osteogenic potential, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved usage of recombinant human BMP-2 (rhBMP-2) during spinal fusion surgery, tibial shaft repair, and maxillary sinus reconstructive surgery. However, shortly after initial injections of rhBMP-2, several adverse complications were reported, and alternative therapeutics have been developed to limit these side-effects. As the clinical application of BMP-2 is largely implicated in bone, we focus primarily on its role in bone. However, we also describe briefly the role of BMP-2 in development. We then focus on the structure of BMP-2, its activation and regulation signaling pathways, BMP-2 clinical applications, and limitations of using BMP-2 as a therapeutic. Further, this review explores other potential treatments that may be useful in treating bone disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Anja Nohe
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA; (D.H.); (H.W.D.)
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Jonas JB, Wang YX, Dong L, Guo Y, Panda-Jonas S. Advances in myopia research anatomical findings in highly myopic eyes. EYE AND VISION (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2020; 7:45. [PMID: 32905133 PMCID: PMC7465809 DOI: 10.1186/s40662-020-00210-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The goal of this review is to summarize structural and anatomical changes associated with high myopia. MAIN TEXT Axial elongation in myopic eyes is associated with retinal thinning and a reduced density of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells in the equatorial region. Thickness of the retina and choriocapillaris and RPE cell density in the macula are independent of axial length. Choroidal and scleral thickness decrease with longer axial length in the posterior hemisphere of the eye, most marked at the posterior pole. In any eye region, thickness of Bruch's membrane (BM) is independent of axial length. BM opening, as the inner layer of the optic nerve head layers, is shifted in temporal direction in moderately elongated eyes (axial length <26.5 mm). It leads to an overhanging of BM into the intrapapillary compartment at the nasal optic disc side, and to an absence of BM at the temporal disc border. The lack of BM at the temporal disc side is the histological equivalent of parapapillary gamma zone. Gamma zone is defined as the parapapillary region without BM. In highly myopic eyes (axial length >26.5 mm), BM opening enlarges with longer axial length. It leads to a circular gamma zone. In a parallel manner, the peripapillary scleral flange and the lamina cribrosa get longer and thinner with longer axial length in highly myopic eyes. The elongated peripapillary scleral flange forms the equivalent of parapapillary delta zone, and the elongated lamina cribrosa is the equivalent of the myopic secondary macrodisc. The prevalence of BM defects in the macular region increases with longer axial length in highly myopic eyes. Scleral staphylomas are characterized by marked scleral thinning and spatially correlated BM defects, while thickness and density of the choriocapillaris, RPE and BM do not differ markedly between staphylomatous versus non-staphylomatous eyes in the respective regions. CONCLUSIONS High axial myopia is associated with a thinning of the sclera and choroid posteriorly and thinning of the retina and RPE density in the equatorial region, while BM thickness is independent of axial length. The histological changes may point towards BM having a role in the process of axial elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jost B. Jonas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Faculty Mannheim of the Ruprecht-Karis-University, Universitäts-Augenklinik, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Ya Xing Wang
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences Key Laboratory, Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Li Dong
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab, Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yin Guo
- Tongren Eye Care Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Songhomitra Panda-Jonas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Faculty Mannheim of the Ruprecht-Karis-University, Universitäts-Augenklinik, Theodor-Kutzer-Ufer 1-3, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
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10
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Dong L, Shi XH, Li YF, Jiang X, Wang YX, Lan YJ, Wu HT, Jonas JB, Wei WB. Blockade of epidermal growth factor and its receptor and axial elongation in experimental myopia. FASEB J 2020; 34:13654-13670. [PMID: 32799354 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202001095rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
To examine the influence of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and its receptor (EGFR) on axial ocular elongation, we intraocularly injected an EGF antibody and an EGFR antibody into young guinea pigs with lens-induced axial elongation (myopization). Mean axial elongation was reduced in the eyes injected with the EGF/EGFR-antibody compared with the contralateral control eyes injected with PBS (phosphate-buffered solution) (0.43 ± 0.13 mm vs 0.53 ± 0.13 mm; P < .001). The intereye difference in axial length increased (P = .005) as the doses of the EGF antibody and EGFR antibody increased. As a corollary, the thickness of the retina at the posterior pole was dose-dependently increased in the injected eyes compared to the contralateral control eyes. Immunohistochemical staining for EGF and the relative mRNA expression of EGF and EGFR were the highest in eyes not injected with the EGF antibody or EGFR antibody and decreased (P < .05) as the dose of EGF antibody or EGFR antibody increased. In an in vitro study, EGF had a stimulating effect and the EGF antibody had an inhibitory effect on the proliferation and migration of RPE cells. The findings showed that the intravitreal application of an EGF antibody and EGFR antibody is associated with a dose-dependent reduction in lens-induced axial elongation in young guinea pigs. The EGFR family may play a role in axial elongation of the eye and in the development of myopia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Dong
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab, Medical Artificial Intelligence Research and Verification Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xu Han Shi
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab, Medical Artificial Intelligence Research and Verification Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Fan Li
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab, Medical Artificial Intelligence Research and Verification Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xue Jiang
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab, Medical Artificial Intelligence Research and Verification Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ya Xing Wang
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology and Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab, Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yin Jun Lan
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab, Medical Artificial Intelligence Research and Verification Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Hao Tian Wu
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab, Medical Artificial Intelligence Research and Verification Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jost B Jonas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Wen Bin Wei
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center, Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment, Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab, Medical Artificial Intelligence Research and Verification Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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11
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Zhang Y, Azmoun S, Hang A, Zeng J, Eng E, Wildsoet CF. Retinal defocus and form-deprivation induced regional differential gene expression of bone morphogenetic proteins in chick retinal pigment epithelium. J Comp Neurol 2020; 528:2864-2873. [PMID: 32452548 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported bidirectional gene expression regulation of the Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMP2, 4, and 7) in chick retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) in response to imposed optical defocus and form-deprivation (FD). This study investigated whether there are local (regional) differences in these effects. 19-day old White-Leghorn chicks wore monocular +10 or - 10 D lenses, or diffusers (FD) for 2 or 48 hr, after which RPE samples were collected from both eyes, from a central circular zone (3 mm radius), and 3 mm wide annular mid-peripheral and peripheral zones in all cases. BMP2, 4, and 7 gene expression levels in RPE from treated and fellow control eyes were compared as well as differences across zones. With the +10 D lens, increased expression of both BMP2 and BMP4 genes was observed in central and mid-peripheral zones but not the peripheral zone after 2 and 48 hr. In contrast, with the -10 D lens BMP2 gene expression was significantly decreased in all three zones after 2 and 48 hr. Similar patterns of BMP2 gene expression were observed in all three zones after 48 hr of FD. Smaller changes were recorded for BMP4 and BMP7 gene expression for both myopia-inducing treatments. That optical defocus- and FD-induced changes in BMP gene expression in chick RPE show treatment-dependent local (regional) differences suggest important differences in the nature and contributions of local retinal and underlying RPE regions to eye growth regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Sara Azmoun
- School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Abraham Hang
- School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Jiexi Zeng
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Emily Eng
- School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
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12
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Sun Z, Cai S, Zabkiewicz C, Liu C, Ye L. Bone morphogenetic proteins mediate crosstalk between cancer cells and the tumour microenvironment at primary tumours and metastases (Review). Int J Oncol 2020; 56:1335-1351. [PMID: 32236571 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2020.5030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) are pluripotent molecules, co‑ordinating cellular functions from early embryonic and postnatal development to tissue repair, regeneration and homeostasis. They are also involved in tumourigenesis, disease progression and the metastasis of various solid tumours. Emerging evidence has indicated that BMPs are able to promote disease progression and metastasis by orchestrating communication between cancer cells and the surrounding microenvironment. The interactions occur between BMPs and epidermal growth factor receptor, hepatocyte growth factor, fibroblast growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor and extracellular matrix components. Overall, these interactions co‑ordinate the cellular functions of tumour cells and other types of cell in the tumour to promote the growth of the primary tumour, local invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis, and the establishment and survival of cancer cells in the metastatic niche. Therefore, the present study aimed to provide an informative summary of the involvement of BMPs in the tumour microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Sun
- VIP‑II Division of Medical Department, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education, Beijing), Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute, Beijing 100142, P.R. China
| | - Shuo Cai
- Cardiff China Medical Research Collaborative, Division of Cancer and Genetics, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine Zabkiewicz
- Cardiff China Medical Research Collaborative, Division of Cancer and Genetics, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Chang Liu
- Cardiff China Medical Research Collaborative, Division of Cancer and Genetics, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Lin Ye
- Cardiff China Medical Research Collaborative, Division of Cancer and Genetics, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
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13
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Xu X, Fang Y, Jonas JB, Du R, Shinohara K, Tanaka N, Yokoi T, Onishi Y, Uramoto K, Kamoi K, Yoshida T, Ohno-Matsui K. RIDGE-SHAPED MACULA IN YOUNG MYOPIC PATIENTS AND ITS DIFFERENTIATION FROM TYPICAL DOME-SHAPED MACULA IN ELDERLY MYOPIC PATIENTS. Retina 2020; 40:225-232. [PMID: 31972791 DOI: 10.1097/iae.0000000000002395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess and compare clinical features of a ridge-shaped macula (defined as macular elevation only in one meridian across the fovea) in individuals younger than 20 years with those of a dome-shaped macula (DSM) in patients aged 20+ years. METHODS The retrospective observational case series study included 185 highly myopic eyes of 100 consecutive patients younger than 20 years, who were compared with highly myopic patients with DSMs, aged 20+ years and examined in previous studies. RESULTS Seventeen (9.2%) eyes of the highly myopic young patients showed macular elevations all of which ran only in the horizontal direction across the vertical optical coherence tomographic section fulfilled the definition of a ridge and did not show any staphylomas or any macular Bruch membrane defects. By contrast, in the older patients with DSMs, the DSMs were significantly higher and had a narrower base than the ridges in the young patients, and showed macular Bruch membrane defects in their vicinity, with the axial length being significantly longer, the myopic maculopathy more severe, and the subfoveal choroid thinner. CONCLUSION Macular elevations detected in children and adolescents are usually ridge-shaped maculas and do not have the characteristics of DSMs. In comparison with DSMs, ridge-shaped maculas do not show a spatial association with macular Bruch membrane defects or posterior staphylomas and have a wider basis and smoother elevation slope. As a hypothesis, ridge-shaped maculas may be due to a folding of Bruch membrane at the posterior pole, potentially caused by an asymmetrical enlargement of Bruch membrane in the equatorial region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian Xu
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China; and
| | - Yuxin Fang
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jost B Jonas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Ruprecht-Karls-University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ran Du
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kosei Shinohara
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noriko Tanaka
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tae Yokoi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuka Onishi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kengo Uramoto
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koju Kamoi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takeshi Yoshida
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kyoko Ohno-Matsui
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
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14
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Dong L, Shi XH, Kang YK, Wei WB, Wang YX, Xu XL, Gao F, Yuan LH, Zhen J, Jiang WJ, Jonas JB. Amphiregulin and ocular axial length. Acta Ophthalmol 2019; 97:e460-e470. [PMID: 30860674 DOI: 10.1111/aos.14080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess the potential role of amphiregulin as messenger molecule in ocular axial elongation. METHODS The experimental study included guinea pigs (total n = 78) (age: 3-4 weeks) which underwent bilateral lens-induced myopization and received 15 days later three intraocular injections in weekly intervals of amphiregulin antibody (doses:5 μg, 10 μg, 20 μg) into their right eyes, and three phosphate-buffered saline injections into their left eyes; and guinea pigs without lens-induced myopization and which received three unilateral intraocular injections of amphiregulin antibody (dose: 20 μg) or amphiregulin (doses: 1 ng; 10 ng; 20 ng) into their right eyes, and three phosphate-buffered saline injections into their left eyes. Seven days later, the animals were sacrificed. Intravitally, we performed biometry, and histology and immunohistochemistry post-mortem. RESULTS In animals with bilateral lens-induced myopization, the right eyes receiving amphiregulin antibody showed reduced axial elongation in a dose-dependent manner (dose: 5 μg: side difference: 0.14 ± 0.05 mm;10 μg: 0.22 ± 0.06 mm; 20 μg: 0.32 ± 0.06 mm; p < 0.001), thicker sclera (all p < 0.05) and higher cell density in the retinal nuclear layers and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) (all p < 0.05). In animals without lens-induced myopia, the right eyes with amphiregulin antibody application (20 μg) showed reduced axial elongation (p = 0.04), and the right eyes with amphiregulin injections experienced increased (p = 0.02) axial elongation in a dose-dependent manner (1 ng: 0.04 ± 0.06 mm; 10 ng: 0.10 ± 0.05 mm; 20 ng: 0.11 ± 0.06 mm). Eyes with lens-induced axial elongation as compared to eyes without lens-induced axial elongation revealed an increased visualization of amphiregulin upon immunohistochemistry and higher expression of mRNA of endogenous amphiregulin and epidermal growth factor receptor, in particular in the outer part of the retinal inner nuclear layer and in the RPE. CONCLUSION Amphiregulin may be associated with axial elongation in young guinea pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Dong
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab Beijing Tongren Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
| | - Xu Han Shi
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab Beijing Tongren Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
| | - Yi Kun Kang
- Department of Oncology Beijing Chao‐Yang Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
| | - Wen Bin Wei
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab Beijing Tongren Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
| | - Ya Xing Wang
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology and Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab Beijing Tongren Eye Center Beijing Tongren Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
| | - Xiao Lin Xu
- Beijing Tongren Eye Center Beijing Key Laboratory of Intraocular Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment Beijing Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences Key Lab Beijing Tongren Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology and Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab Beijing Tongren Eye Center Beijing Tongren Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
| | - Fei Gao
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology and Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Lab Beijing Tongren Eye Center Beijing Tongren Hospital Capital Medical University Beijing China
| | - Lin Hong Yuan
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene School of Public Health Capital Medical University Beijing China
| | - Jie Zhen
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene School of Public Health Capital Medical University Beijing China
| | - Wen Jun Jiang
- Eye Institute of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Jinan Shandong China
| | - Jost B. Jonas
- Department of Ophthalmology Medical Faculty Mannheim of the Ruprecht‐Karls‐University Heidelberg Mannheim Germany
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15
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Troilo D, Smith EL, Nickla DL, Ashby R, Tkatchenko AV, Ostrin LA, Gawne TJ, Pardue MT, Summers JA, Kee CS, Schroedl F, Wahl S, Jones L. IMI - Report on Experimental Models of Emmetropization and Myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 60:M31-M88. [PMID: 30817827 PMCID: PMC6738517 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.18-25967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The results of many studies in a variety of species have significantly advanced our understanding of the role of visual experience and the mechanisms of postnatal eye growth, and the development of myopia. This paper surveys and reviews the major contributions that experimental studies using animal models have made to our thinking about emmetropization and development of myopia. These studies established important concepts informing our knowledge of the visual regulation of eye growth and refractive development and have transformed treatment strategies for myopia. Several major findings have come from studies of experimental animal models. These include the eye's ability to detect the sign of retinal defocus and undergo compensatory growth, the local retinal control of eye growth, regulatory changes in choroidal thickness, and the identification of components in the biochemistry of eye growth leading to the characterization of signal cascades regulating eye growth and refractive state. Several of these findings provided the proofs of concepts that form the scientific basis of new and effective clinical treatments for controlling myopia progression in humans. Experimental animal models continue to provide new insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of eye growth control, including the identification of potential new targets for drug development and future treatments needed to stem the increasing prevalence of myopia and the vision-threatening conditions associated with this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Troilo
- SUNY College of Optometry, State University of New York, New York, New York, United States
| | - Earl L. Smith
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Debora L. Nickla
- Biomedical Sciences and Disease, New England College of Optometry, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Regan Ashby
- Health Research Institute, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
| | - Andrei V. Tkatchenko
- Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States
| | - Lisa A. Ostrin
- College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Timothy J. Gawne
- School of Optometry, University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States
| | - Machelle T. Pardue
- Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Tech College of Engineering, Atlanta, Georgia, United States31
| | - Jody A. Summers
- College of Medicine, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Chea-su Kee
- School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Anatomy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Siegfried Wahl
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Zeiss Vision Science Laboratory, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Lyndon Jones
- CORE, School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
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16
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Hsiao YT, Chang WA, Kuo MT, Lo J, Lin HC, Yen MC, Jian SF, Chen YJ, Kuo PL. Systematic Analysis of Transcriptomic Profile of the Effects of Low Dose Atropine Treatment on Scleral Fibroblasts using Next-Generation Sequencing and Bioinformatics. Int J Med Sci 2019; 16:1652-1667. [PMID: 31839753 PMCID: PMC6909806 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.38571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This study has two novel findings: it is not only the first to deduct potential genes involved in scleral growth repression upon atropine instillation from a prevention point of view, but also the first to demonstrate that only slight changes in scleral gene expression were found after atropine treatment as side effects and safety reasons of the eye drops are of concern. The sclera determines the final ocular shape and size, constituting of scleral fibroblasts as the principal cell type and the major regulator of extracellular matrix. The aim of our study was to identify differentially expressed genes and microRNA regulations in atropine-treated scleral fibroblasts that are potentially involved in preventing the onset of excessive ocular growth using next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics approaches. Differentially expressed genes were functionally enriched in anti-remodeling effects, comprising of structural changes of extracellular matrix and metabolic pathways involving cell differentiation. Significant canonical pathways were correlated to inhibition of melatonin degradation, which was compatible with our clinical practice as atropine eye drops are instilled at night. Validation of the dysregulated genes with previous eye growth-related arrays and through microRNA-mRNA interaction predictions revealed the association of hsa-miR-2682-5p-KCNJ5 and hsa-miR-2682-5p-PRLR with scleral anti-remodeling and circadian rhythmicity. Our findings present new insights into understanding the anti-myopic effects of atropine, which may assist in prevention of myopia development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Hsiao
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.,Department of Ophthalmology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan
| | - Wei-An Chang
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.,Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Tse Kuo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan
| | - Jung Lo
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.,Department of Ophthalmology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan
| | - Hsien-Chung Lin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Meng-Chi Yen
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.,Department of Emergency Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Fang Jian
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Jen Chen
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.,School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Po-Lin Kuo
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan.,Center for Cancer Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
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17
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Kahata K, Dadras MS, Moustakas A. TGF-β Family Signaling in Epithelial Differentiation and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2018; 10:cshperspect.a022194. [PMID: 28246184 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a022194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Epithelia exist in the animal body since the onset of embryonic development; they generate tissue barriers and specify organs and glands. Through epithelial-mesenchymal transitions (EMTs), epithelia generate mesenchymal cells that form new tissues and promote healing or disease manifestation when epithelial homeostasis is challenged physiologically or pathologically. Transforming growth factor-βs (TGF-βs), activins, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and growth and differentiation factors (GDFs) have been implicated in the regulation of epithelial differentiation. These TGF-β family ligands are expressed and secreted at sites where the epithelium interacts with the mesenchyme and provide paracrine queues from the mesenchyme to the neighboring epithelium, helping the specification of differentiated epithelial cell types within an organ. TGF-β ligands signal via Smads and cooperating kinase pathways and control the expression or activities of key transcription factors that promote either epithelial differentiation or mesenchymal transitions. In this review, we discuss evidence that illustrates how TGF-β family ligands contribute to epithelial differentiation and induce mesenchymal transitions, by focusing on the embryonic ectoderm and tissues that form the external mammalian body lining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaoru Kahata
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mahsa Shahidi Dadras
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Aristidis Moustakas
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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18
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Li J, Zhang Q. Insight into the molecular genetics of myopia. Mol Vis 2017; 23:1048-1080. [PMID: 29386878 PMCID: PMC5757860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Myopia is the most common cause of visual impairment worldwide. Genetic and environmental factors contribute to the development of myopia. Studies on the molecular genetics of myopia are well established and have implicated the important role of genetic factors. With linkage analysis, association studies, sequencing analysis, and experimental myopia studies, many of the loci and genes associated with myopia have been identified. Thus far, there has been no systemic review of the loci and genes related to non-syndromic and syndromic myopia based on the different approaches. Such a systemic review of the molecular genetics of myopia will provide clues to identify additional plausible genes for myopia and help us to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying myopia. This paper reviews recent genetic studies on myopia, summarizes all possible reported genes and loci related to myopia, and suggests implications for future studies on the molecular genetics of myopia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiali Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingjiong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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Differential gene expression of BMP2 and BMP receptors in chick retina & choroid induced by imposed optical defocus. Vis Neurosci 2017; 33:E015. [PMID: 28359351 DOI: 10.1017/s0952523816000122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated the defocus sign-dependent, bidirectional gene expression regulation of bone morphogenetic proteins, BMP2, 4 and 7 in chick RPE. In this study, we examined the effects of imposed positive (+10 D) and negative (-10 D) lenses on the gene expression of these BMPs and BMP receptors (BMPR1A, BMPR1B, BMPR2) in chick retina and choroid after monocular lens treatment for 2 or 48 h, as indicators of the roles of retinal and choroidal BMPs and receptors in postnatal eye growth regulation. In retina, although all genes were expressed, neither +10 nor -10 D lenses, worn for either 2 or 48 h, significantly altered gene expression. In contrast, treatment-related differential gene expression was detected in the choroid for both BMPs and their receptors, although interestingly, with the +10 D lens, BMP2 was up-regulated by 156.7 ± 19.7% after 2 h, while BMPR1A was down-regulated to 82.3 ± 12.5% only after 48 h. With the -10 D lens, only the gene expression of BMPR1B was significantly altered, being up-regulated by 162.3 ± 21.2% after 48 h. Untreated birds showed no difference in expression between their two eyes, for any of the genes examined. The finding that retinal gene expression for BMP2, 4, 7 and their receptors are not affected by short-term optical defocus contrasts with previous observations of sign-dependent expression changes for the same genes in the RPE. The latter changes were also larger and more consistent in direction than the choroidal gene expression changes reported here. The interrelationship between these various changes and their biological significance for eye growth regulation are yet to be elucidated.
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Jiang WJ, Song HX, Li SY, Guo B, Wu JF, Li GP, Guo DD, Shi DL, Bi HS, Jonas JB. Amphiregulin Antibody and Reduction of Axial Elongation in Experimental Myopia. EBioMedicine 2017; 17:134-144. [PMID: 28256400 PMCID: PMC5360597 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2017.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Revised: 02/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
To examine the mechanism of ocular axial elongation in myopia, guinea pigs (age: 2–3 weeks) which either underwent unilateral or bilateral lens-induced myopization (group 1) or which were primarily myopic at baseline (group 2) received unilateral intraocular injections of amphiregulin antibody (doses: 5, 10, or 15 μg) three times in intervals of 9 days. A third group of emmetropic guinea pigs got intraocular unilateral injections of amphiregulin (doses: 0.25, 0.50 or 1.00 ng, respectively). In each group, the contralateral eyes received intraocular injections of Ringer's solution. In intra-animal inter-eye comparison and intra-eye follow-up comparison in groups 1 and 2, the study eyes as compared to the contralateral eyes showed a dose-dependent reduction in axial elongation. In group 3, study eyes and control eyes did not differ significantly in axial elongation. Immunohistochemistry revealed amphiregulin labelling at the retinal pigment epithelium in eyes with lens-induced myopization and Ringer's solution injection, but not in eyes with amphiregulin antibody injection. Intraocular injections of amphiregulin-antibody led to a reduction of lens-induced axial myopic elongation and of the physiological eye enlargement in young guinea pigs. In contrast, intraocularly injected amphiregulin in a dose of ≤ 1 ng did not show a significant effect. Amphiregulin may be one of several essential molecular factors for axial elongation. Intraocular injections of amphiregulin-antibody led to a reduction of lens-induced axial myopic elongation in guinea pigs. Intraocular injections of amphiregulin-antibody also led to a reduction of the physiological eye growth in guinea pigs. Amphiregulin may be one of several essential molecular factors for axial elongation in young guinea pigs.
Due to an increase in its prevalence, myopia has been feared to become one of the most common causes of irreversible visual impairment worldwide. Although staying indoors in childhood has been identified as the most important factor for the development of myopia, the underlying mechanism leading to myopia has remained elusive so far. In the present experimental study, young guinea pigs which were myopized by a lens, developed less myopia if they simultaneously received intraocular injections of an antibody of amphiregulin, a member of the epithelial growth factor family. It suggests that amphiregulin is associated with axial elongation in myopia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Jun Jiang
- Eye Institute of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Hui Xin Song
- The Second College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Shao Yu Li
- The Second College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Bin Guo
- The First College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Jian Feng Wu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Guo Ping Li
- The Second College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Da Dong Guo
- Eye Institute of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - De Long Shi
- The Second College of Clinical Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Hong Sheng Bi
- Eye Institute of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, China.
| | - Jost B Jonas
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical Faculty Mannheim of the Ruprecht-Karls-University Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.
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Seko Y, Azuma N, Yokoi T, Kami D, Ishii R, Nishina S, Toyoda M, Shimokawa H, Umezawa A. Anteroposterior Patterning of Gene Expression in the Human Infant Sclera: Chondrogenic Potential and Wnt Signaling. Curr Eye Res 2016; 42:145-154. [PMID: 27336854 DOI: 10.3109/02713683.2016.1143015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Purpose/Aim: We sought to identify the anteroposterior spatial gene expression hierarchy in the human sclera to develop a hypothesis for axial elongation and deformity of the eyeball. MATERIALS AND METHODS We analyzed the global gene expression of human scleral cells derived from distinct parts of the human infant sclera obtained from surgically enucleated eyes with retinoblastoma, using Affymetrix GeneChip oligonucleotide arrays, and compared, in particular, gene expression levels between the anterior and posterior parts of the sclera. The ages of three donors were 10M, 4M, and 1Y9M. RESULTS K-means clustering analysis of gene expression revealed that expression levels of cartilage-associated genes such as COLXIA and ACAN increased from the anterior to the posterior part of the sclera. Microarray analyses and RT-PCR data showed that the expression levels of MGP, COLXIA, BMP4, and RARB were significantly higher in the posterior than in the anterior sclera of two independent infant eyes. Conversely, expression levels of WNT2, DKK2, GREM1, and HOXB2 were significantly higher in the anterior sclera. Among several Wnt-family genes examined, WNT2B was found to be expressed at a significantly higher level in the posterior sclera, and the reverse order was observed for WNT2. The results of luciferase reporter assays suggested that a GSK-3β inhibitor stimulated Wnt/β-catenin signaling particularly strongly in the posterior sclera. The expression pattern of RARB, a myopia-related gene, was similar in three independent eyes. CONCLUSIONS Chondrogenic potential was higher and Wnt/β-catenin signaling was more potently activated by a GSK-3β inhibitor in the posterior than in the anterior part of the human infant sclera. Although the differences in the gene expression profiles between the anterior and posterior sclera might be involved only in normal growth processes, this anteroposterior hierarchy in the sclera might contribute to disorders involving abnormal elongation and deformity of the eyeball, including myopia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuko Seko
- a Visual Functions Section, Department of Rehabilitation for Sensory Functions , Research Institute, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities , Saitama , Japan.,b Department of Reproductive Biology , Center for Regenerative Medicine, National Institute for Child Health and Development , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Noriyuki Azuma
- c Department of Ophthalmology , National Center for Child Health and Development , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Tadashi Yokoi
- c Department of Ophthalmology , National Center for Child Health and Development , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Daisuke Kami
- b Department of Reproductive Biology , Center for Regenerative Medicine, National Institute for Child Health and Development , Tokyo , Japan.,d Department of Regenerative Medicine , Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine , Kyoto , Japan
| | - Ryuga Ishii
- b Department of Reproductive Biology , Center for Regenerative Medicine, National Institute for Child Health and Development , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Sachiko Nishina
- c Department of Ophthalmology , National Center for Child Health and Development , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Masashi Toyoda
- b Department of Reproductive Biology , Center for Regenerative Medicine, National Institute for Child Health and Development , Tokyo , Japan.,e Department of Vascular Medicine , Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Hitoyata Shimokawa
- a Visual Functions Section, Department of Rehabilitation for Sensory Functions , Research Institute, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities , Saitama , Japan.,f Department of Pediatric Dentistry , Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University , Tokyo , Japan
| | - Akihiro Umezawa
- b Department of Reproductive Biology , Center for Regenerative Medicine, National Institute for Child Health and Development , Tokyo , Japan
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