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Zhang Y, Liu C, van der Fels‐Klerx HJ. Occurrence, toxicity, dietary exposure, and management of Alternaria mycotoxins in food and feed: A systematic literature review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2025; 24:e70085. [PMID: 39746866 PMCID: PMC11695269 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.70085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2024] [Revised: 11/18/2024] [Accepted: 12/22/2024] [Indexed: 01/04/2025]
Abstract
Alternaria mycotoxins are emerging contaminants frequently detected in food products and threaten human health. This systematic review aims to provide an up-to-date overview of scientific data and knowledge and gaps therein of natural occurrence, toxicological effects, dietary exposure, and prevention and control management of Alternaria mycotoxins in food and feed. A systematic review has been performed, using the databases Scopus and PubMed, retrieving relevant scientific papers published in English from 2011 to 2024. Alternaria mycotoxins are widely present in various food and feed products, with tomatoes and cereals being the most contaminated products. From the Alternaria mycotoxins, tenuazonic acid (TeA) and alternariol were reported with the highest detection rate and concentrations. Identified toxicological effects vary between the different Alternaria mycotoxins and include carcinogenicity, immune toxicity, cytotoxicity, and genotoxicity. Dietary exposure assessments for Alternaria mycotoxins have been conducted in several countries but vary in their scope. The calculations and risk values suggest that exposure of children to TeA via their diet is close to their tolerable daily intake. A similar finding has been reported for exposure of adults to alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether via food consumption. Most Alternaria mycotoxins are heat-stable and cannot easily be removed during food processing; therefore, prevention and control measures for Alternaria mycotoxin contamination in food and feed are crucial. Fungicide and biocontrol applications have been shown effective in reducing Alternaria fungal growth and toxin production, and the development of predictive models may be promising. Collectively, they can contribute to mitigating the impact of Alternaria mycotoxins on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimin Zhang
- Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Agricultural Genomics Institute at ShenzhenChinese Academy of Agricultural SciencesShenzhenChina
- Business Economics GroupWageningen University & ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
- Wageningen Food Safety ResearchWageningen University & ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - Cheng Liu
- Wageningen Food Safety ResearchWageningen University & ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - H. J. van der Fels‐Klerx
- Business Economics GroupWageningen University & ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
- Wageningen Food Safety ResearchWageningen University & ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
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Ji X, He Y, Xiao Y, Liang Y, Lyu W, Yang H. The fate of Alternaria toxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) during the processing chain of wheat flour products and risk control strategies for mycotoxins. Food Res Int 2024; 194:114941. [PMID: 39232551 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 07/27/2024] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/06/2024]
Abstract
The fate of Alternaria toxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) during the processing chain of wheat flour products was systemically evaluated. TeA was analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in wheat grains and the corresponding wheat flour products produced throughout the whole chain. The results indicated that TeA contamination in wheat grains largely determines the level of TeA toxin present in byproducts, semi-finished products, and finished products of the processing of four types of simulated processed wheat flour products (e.g., dry noodles, steamed breads, baked breads, and biscuits). The different food processing techniques had different effects on the fate of TeA. Wheat flour processing can reduce the TeA content in wheat grains by 58.7-83.2 %, indicating that wheat flour processing is a key step in reducing the TeA content in the food chain. Among the four types of wheat flour products, the decreases in TeA content in biscuits (69.8-76.7 %) were greater than those in dry noodles (15.5-22.3 %) and steamed breads (24.9-43.6 %). In addition, the decreasing effect of TeA was especially obvious in the wheat flour product chain with a high level of contamination. The processing factors (PFs) for TeA were as low as 0.20 for the four wheat processing methods and as high as 1.24 for the dry noodle processing method. At the average and 95th percentiles, dietary exposure to TeA in Chinese consumers including infants and young children did not exceed the relevant threshold value of toxicological concern (TTC) of TeA (1.5 µg/kg body weight per day), indicating an acceptable health risk for Chinese consumers via wheat flour products. These findings provide new insight into the fate of TeA in the food chain and mycotoxin control on the safety of wheat flour products and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ji
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yeyu He
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yingping Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ying Liang
- Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety of Jiangsu Province, Institute of Food Safety and Nutrition, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Science, Nanjing 210014, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wentao Lyu
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, Zhejiang, China
| | - Hua Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, Zhejiang, China.
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Dodlek Šarkanj I, Vahčić N, Markov K, Haramija J, Uršulin-Trstenjak N, Hajdek K, Sulyok M, Krska R, Šarkanj B. First Report on Mycotoxin Contamination of Hops ( Humulus lupulus L.). Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:293. [PMID: 39057933 PMCID: PMC11281705 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16070293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Revised: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxins and other toxic metabolites in hops (Humulus lupulus L.) was assessed for the first time. In total, 62 hop samples were sampled in craft breweries, and analyzed by a multi-toxin LS-MS/MS method. The study collected samples from craft breweries in all of the Croatian counties and statistically compared the results. Based on previous reports on Alternaria spp. and Fusarium spp. contamination of hops, the study confirmed the contamination of hops with these toxins. Alternaria toxins, particularly tenuazonic acid, were found in all tested samples, while Fusarium toxins, including deoxynivalenol, were present in 98% of samples. However, no Aspergillus or Penicillium metabolites were detected, indicating proper storage conditions. In addition to the Alternaria and Fusarium toxins, abscisic acid, a drought stress indicator in hops, was also detected, as well as several unspecific metabolites. The findings suggest the need for monitoring, risk assessment, and potential regulation of Alternaria and Fusarium toxins in hops to ensure the safety of hop usage in the brewing and pharmaceutical industries. Also, four local wild varieties were tested, with similar results to the commercial varieties for toxin contamination, but the statistically significant regional differences in toxin occurrence highlight the importance and need for targeted monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Dodlek Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia; (I.D.Š.); (N.U.-T.)
| | - Nada Vahčić
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.V.); (K.M.)
| | - Ksenija Markov
- Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (N.V.); (K.M.)
| | - Josip Haramija
- Koprivnica Branch, State Inspectorate, Florijanski trg 18, HR-48000, Koprivnica, Croatia;
| | - Natalija Uršulin-Trstenjak
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia; (I.D.Š.); (N.U.-T.)
| | - Krunoslav Hajdek
- Department of Packaging, Recycling and Environmental Protection, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia;
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, AT-3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.)
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, AT-3430 Tulln, Austria; (M.S.); (R.K.)
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Department of Food Technology, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000 Koprivnica, Croatia; (I.D.Š.); (N.U.-T.)
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Saleh I, Zeidan R, Abu-Dieyeh M. The characteristics, occurrence, and toxicological effects of alternariol: a mycotoxin. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:1659-1683. [PMID: 38662238 PMCID: PMC11106155 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03743-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Alternaria species are mycotoxin-producing fungi known to infect fresh produce and to cause their spoilage. Humans get exposed to fungal secondary metabolites known as mycotoxin via the ingestion of contaminated food. Alternariol (AOH) (C14H10O5) is an isocoumarins produced by different species of Alternaria including Alternaria alternata. AOH is often found in grain, fruits and fruits-based food products with high levels in legumes, nuts, and tomatoes. AOH was first discovered in 1953, and it is nowadays linked to esophagus cancer and endocrine disruption due to its similarity to estrogen. Although considered as an emerging mycotoxin with no regulated levels in food, AOH occurs in highly consumed dietary products and has been detected in various masked forms, which adds to its occurrence. Therefore, this comprehensive review was developed to give an overview on recent literature in the field of AOH. The current study summarizes published data on occurrence levels of AOH in different food products in the last ten years and evaluates those levels in comparison to recommended levels by the regulating entities. Such surveillance facilitates the work of health risk assessors and highlights commodities that are most in need of AOH levels regulation. In addition, the effects of AOH on cells and animal models were summarized in two tables; data include the last two-year literature studies. The review addresses also the main characteristics of AOH and the possible human exposure routes, the populations at risk, and the effect of anthropogenic activities on the widespread of the mycotoxin. The commonly used detection and control methods described in the latest literature are also discussed to guide future researchers to focus on mitigating mycotoxins contamination in the food industry. This review aims mainly to serve as a guideline on AOH for mycotoxin regulation developers and health risk assessors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman Saleh
- Biological Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar.
| | - Randa Zeidan
- Biological Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
| | - Mohammed Abu-Dieyeh
- Biological Science Program, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, College of Art and Science, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar
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Behrens AM, Sulyok M, Krska R, Hennies I, Ern A, Blechmann C, Meyer JC. Occurrence of Alternaria secondary metabolites in milling oats and its de-hulled fractions from harvest years 2017 to 2021. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2024; 41:188-200. [PMID: 38190265 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2023.2294003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
In this study, secondary metabolites produced by Alternaria were investigated for their presence in milling oats. For this purpose, pre-cleaned milling oat samples (n = 193), intended for human consumption, out of harvest years 2017 to 2021 originating from different northern European countries were analysed by LC-MS/MS. Alternariol and alternariol methyl ether were positively identified in 38% of the samples with mean values of 2.1 µg/kg and 1.2 µg/kg, respectively. The highest concentrations of 50.5 µg/kg alternariol and 24.2 µg/kg of alternariol methyl ether were detected in a Latvian sample. Tenuazonic acid was found in 45% of all samples, with a mean concentration of 28.9 µg/kg and a maximum concentration of 1430 µg/kg, also in a Latvian sample. Tentoxin was detected in 49% of all samples with a mean value of 1.7 µg/kg. The Alternaria metabolite most frequently detected in 96% of all samples was infectopyrone with a mean concentration of 593 µg/kg and a maximum value reaching up to 3990 µg/kg in a German sample. In addition, eight oat samples were selected to investigate to what extent the Alternaria metabolites are distributed between the oat hulls and the oat kernels. After de-hulling, approximately 23% of Alternaria metabolites were found in the remaining oat kernels. According to the results, alternariol, infectopyrone and altersetin were present in the kernels with the lowest proportion of 10%-20% on average, respectively. The values for tentoxin showed that about 60% of tentoxin was contained in the hulls, while almost 40% remained in the oat kernel. This suggests that potential health risks posed by Alternaria secondary metabolites and metabolites of other fungal genera in milling oats can be reduced by de-hulling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Marie Behrens
- H. & J. Brüggen KG, Lübeck, Germany
- Department of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University Neubrandenburg, Neubrandenburg, Germany
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland
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Deligeorgakis C, Magro C, Skendi A, Gebrehiwot HH, Valdramidis V, Papageorgiou M. Fungal and Toxin Contaminants in Cereal Grains and Flours: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Foods 2023; 12:4328. [PMID: 38231837 DOI: 10.3390/foods12234328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Cereal grains serve as the cornerstone of global nutrition, providing a significant portion of humanity's caloric requirements. However, the presence of fungal genera, such Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria, known for their mycotoxin-producing abilities, presents a significant threat to human health due to the adverse effects of these toxins. The primary objective of this study was to identify the predominant fungal contaminants in cereal grains utilized in breadmaking, as well as in flour and bread. Moreover, a systematic review, including meta-analysis, was conducted on the occurrence and levels of mycotoxins in wheat flour from the years 2013 to 2023. The genera most frequently reported were Fusarium, followed by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Alternaria. Among the published reports, the majority focused on the analysis of Deoxynivalenol (DON), which garnered twice as many reports compared to those focusing on Aflatoxins, Zearalenone, and Ochratoxin A. The concentration of these toxins, in most cases determined by HPLC-MS/MS or HPLC coupled with a fluorescence detector (FLD), was occasionally observed to exceed the maximum limits established by national and/or international authorities. The prevalence of mycotoxins in flour samples from the European Union (EU) and China, as well as in foods intended for infants, exhibited a significant reduction compared to other commercial flours assessed by a meta-analysis investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christodoulos Deligeorgakis
- Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, P.O. Box 141, GR-57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Christopher Magro
- Department of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta
| | - Adriana Skendi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, P.O. Box 141, GR-57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Vasilis Valdramidis
- Department of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Malta, MSD 2080 Msida, Malta
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Zografou, GR-15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Papageorgiou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, P.O. Box 141, GR-57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Yang D, Yang H, Shi M, Jia X, Sui H, Liu Z, Wu Y. Advancing food safety risk assessment in China: development of new approach methodologies (NAMs). FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2023; 5:1292373. [PMID: 38046399 PMCID: PMC10690935 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2023.1292373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Novel techniques and methodologies are being developed to advance food safety risk assessment into the next-generation. Considering the shortcomings of traditional animal testing, new approach methodologies (NAMs) will be the main tools for the next-generation risk assessment (NGRA), using non-animal methodologies such as in vitro and in silico approaches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Food Safety Authority have established work plans to encourage the development and application of NAMs in NGRA. Currently, NAMs are more commonly used in research than in regulatory risk assessment. China is also developing NAMs for NGRA but without a comprehensive review of the current work. This review summarizes major NAM-related research articles from China and highlights the China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment (CFSA) as the primary institution leading the implementation of NAMs in NGRA in China. The projects of CFSA on NAMs such as the Food Toxicology Program and the strategies for implementing NAMs in NGRA are outlined. Key issues and recommendations, such as discipline development and team building, are also presented to promote NAMs development in China and worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Haixia Sui
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
| | - Zhaoping Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing, China
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Ji X, Jin C, Xiao Y, Deng M, Wang W, Lyu W, Chen J, Li R, Li Y, Yang H. Natural Occurrence of Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Wheat Grains and Assessment of the Risks from Dietary Mycotoxins Exposure in China. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:389. [PMID: 37368690 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Wheat grains are susceptible to contamination with various natural mycotoxins including regulated and emerging mycotoxins. This study surveyed the natural presence of regulated mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN), and emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs such as ENA, ENA1, ENB, ENB1) and Alternaria mycotoxins (i.e., alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), tenuazonic acid (TeA), tentoxin (TEN), and altenuene (ALT)) in wheat grains randomly collected from eight provinces across China in 2021. The results revealed that each wheat grain sample was detected with at least one type of mycotoxin. The detection rates of these mycotoxins ranged from 7.1% to 100%, with the average occurrence level ranging from 1.11 to 921.8 µg/kg. DON and TeA were the predominant mycotoxins with respect to both prevalence and concentration. Approximately 99.7% of samples were found to contain more than one toxin, and the co-occurrence of ten toxins (DON + ZEN + ENA + ENA1 + ENB + ENB1 + AME + AOH + TeA + TEN) was the most frequently detected combination. The dietary exposure to different mycotoxins among Chinese consumers aged 4-70 years was as follows: 0.592-0.992 µg/kg b.w./day for DON, 0.007-0.012 µg/kg b.w./day for ZEN, 0.0003-0.007 µg/kg b.w./day for BEA and ENNs, 0.223-0.373 µg/kg b.w./day for TeA, and 0.025-0.041 µg/kg b.w./day for TEN, which were lower than the health-based guidance values for each mycotoxin, with the corresponding hazard quotient (HQ) being far lower than 1, implying a tolerable health risk for Chinese consumers. However, the estimated dietary exposure to AME and AOH was in the range of 0.003-0.007 µg/kg b.w./day, exceeding the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) value of 0.0025 µg/kg b.w./day, demonstrating potential dietary risks for Chinese consumers. Therefore, developing practical control and management strategies is essential for controlling mycotoxins contamination in the agricultural systems, thereby ensuring public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ji
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Canghong Jin
- School of Computer and Computing Science, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou 310015, China
| | - Yingping Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Meihua Deng
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Wen Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Wentao Lyu
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Jiapeng Chen
- School of Computer and Computing Science, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou 310015, China
| | - Rui Li
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preventive Veterinary Sciences, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Hua Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China
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Han X, Xu W, Wang L, Zhang R, Ye J, Zhang J, Xu J, Wu Y. Natural Occurrence of Alternaria Toxins in Citrus-Based Products Collected from China in 2021. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15050325. [PMID: 37235359 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15050325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
A total of 181 citrus-based products, including dried fruits, canned fruits, and fruit juices, collected from China and from abroad in 2021 were analyzed for the four Alternaria toxins (ALTs): alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tentoxin (TEN), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS). Although the concentrations of the four ALTs varied by product and geographically, TeA was the predominant toxin followed by AOH, AME, and TEN. Products made in China showed higher levels of ALTs than those made abroad. Maximum levels of TeA, AOH, and AME in analyzed domestic samples were 4.9-fold, 1.3-fold, and 1.2-fold, respectively, higher than those in imported products. Furthermore, 83.4% (151/181) of the analyzed citrus-based products were contaminated with at least two or more ALTs. There were significant positive correlations between AOH and AME, AME and TeA, and TeA and TEN in all analyzed samples. More importantly, the solid and the condensed liquid products had higher concentrations of ALTs than the semi-solid product samples, as well as tangerines, pummelos, and grapefruits compared to the other kinds of citrus-based products. In conclusion, co-contamination with ALTs in commercially available Chinese citrus-based products was universal. Extensive and systematic surveillance of ALTs in citrus-based products, both domestic and imported, is required to obtain more scientific data for the determination of the maximum allowable concentrations of ALTs in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Han
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Wenjing Xu
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Luxinyi Wang
- College of Biochemical Engineering, Beijing Union University, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Ruina Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Beijing Friendship Hospital Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Jin Ye
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 102600, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Jin Xu
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Yu Wu
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 102600, China
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Zhang J, Tang X, Cai Y, Zhou WW. Mycotoxin Contamination Status of Cereals in China and Potential Microbial Decontamination Methods. Metabolites 2023; 13:metabo13040551. [PMID: 37110209 PMCID: PMC10143121 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13040551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxins in cereals can pose a significant health risk to animals and humans. China is one of the countries that is facing cereal contamination by mycotoxins. Treating mycotoxin-contaminated cereals with established physical and chemical methods can lead to negative effects, such as the loss of nutrients, chemical residues, and high energy consumption. Therefore, microbial detoxification techniques are being considered for reducing and treating mycotoxins in cereals. This paper reviews the contamination of aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and ochratoxin A in major cereals (rice, wheat, and maize). Our discussion is based on 8700 samples from 30 provincial areas in China between 2005 and 2021. Previous research suggests that the temperature and humidity in the highly contaminated Chinese cereal-growing regions match the growth conditions of potential antagonists. Therefore, this review takes biological detoxification as the starting point and summarizes the methods of microbial detoxification, microbial active substance detoxification, and other microbial inhibition methods for treating contaminated cereals. Furthermore, their respective mechanisms are systematically analyzed, and a series of strategies for combining the above methods with the treatment of contaminated cereals in China are proposed. It is hoped that this review will provide a reference for subsequent solutions to cereal contamination problems and for the development of safer and more efficient methods of biological detoxification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Xi Tang
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yifan Cai
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Wen-Wen Zhou
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
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11
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Woo SY, Lee SY, Jeong TK, Park SM, Auh JH, Shin HS, Chun HS. Natural Occurrence of Alternaria Toxins in Agricultural Products and Processed Foods Marketed in South Korea by LC-MS/MS. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120824. [PMID: 36548721 PMCID: PMC9786207 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 11/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria mycotoxins including alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), altenuene (ALT), altertoxin-I (ATX-I), tentoxin (TEN), and tenuazonic acid (TeA), are ubiquitous contaminants in agricultural products. A method for the simultaneous determination of these six toxins by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with solid phase extraction (SPE) was validated in rice, sesame, tomato, and apple juice matrices. The performance of the method was evaluated in terms of linearity (R2 > 0.999), the limit of detection (0.04-1.67 μg/kg), the limit of quantification (0.12-5.06 μg/kg), recovery (80.0-114.7%), and precision (<17.7%). The validated method was applied to monitor 152 marketed food samples in South Korea, as well as to investigate the co-occurrence and correlation between Alternaria toxins. The mean occurrence levels were 2.77 μg/kg for AOH, 4.36 μg/kg for AME, 0.14 μg/kg for ALT, 0.11 μg/kg for ATX-I, 0.43 μg/kg for TEN, and 104.56 μg/kg for TeA. Mean and extreme (95th percentile) daily dietary exposures of South Koreans to Alternaria toxins were estimated to be 22.93 ng/kg b.w./day and 86.07 ng/kg b.w./day, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- So Young Woo
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Yoo Lee
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Kyun Jeong
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Mi Park
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Joong Hyuck Auh
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Han-Seung Shin
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Dongguk University-Seoul, Goyang-si 10326, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyang Sook Chun
- School of Food Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
- Correspondence:
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12
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Augustin Mihalache O, Dellafiora L, Dall'Asta C. A systematic review of natural toxins occurrence in plant commodities used for plant-based meat alternatives production. Food Res Int 2022; 158:111490. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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13
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Miao Y, Wang D, Chen Y, Zhu X, Tang X, Zhang J, Zhang L, Chen J. General toxicity and genotoxicity of alternariol: a novel 28-day multi-endpoint assessment in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Mycotoxin Res 2022; 38:231-241. [PMID: 35913592 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-022-00466-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) is one of the toxins of Alternaria, and it has been widely detected in a variety of foods. It has been reported to be cytotoxic, dermally toxic, genotoxic, and potentially carcinogenic in vitro. However, in vivo toxicity data are lacking. This study used a novel in vivo 28-day multi-endpoint (Pig-a assay + micronucleus test + comet assay) genotoxicity evaluation system to evaluate the general toxicity and genotoxicity of AOH. A total of 42 male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly distributed into three AOH-treated groups (5.51, 10.03, and 22.05 µg/kg bw), one AOH high-dose recovery group (AOH-HR, 22.05 µg/kg bw), one positive control group (N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea, 40 mg/kg bw), and two vehicle control groups (corn oil and PBS). Treatments were administered by oral gavage for 28 consecutive days. Histopathological lesions were observed in the liver, kidney, and spleen in all AOH-treated groups. No statistical difference was found in each genotoxicity index within 28 days in the AOH-treated groups compared with those in the corn oil group. On day 42, in the AOH-HR group, the rate of Pig-a mutant phenotype reticulocytes (RETCD59-) significantly increased. On day 56, both RETCD59- and the rate of Pig-a mutant phenotype erythrocytes (RBCCD59-) were significantly reduced. These findings indicated that AOH might cumulatively induce genetic mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeqiu Miao
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Dongxia Wang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yiyi Chen
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xia Zhu
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xinyao Tang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lishi Zhang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Jinyao Chen
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China. .,Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
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14
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Ji X, Xiao Y, Wang W, Lyu W, Wang X, Li Y, Deng T, Yang H. Mycotoxins in cereal-based infant foods marketed in China: Occurrence and risk assessment. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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15
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Qiao X, Li G, Zhang J, Du J, Yang Y, Yin J, Li H, Xie J, Jiang Y, Fang X, Dai X, Shao B. Urinary analysis reveals high Alternaria mycotoxins exposure in the general population from Beijing, China. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 118:122-129. [PMID: 35305760 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2021.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Alternaria mycotoxins are of concern due to its adverse health effect, they affect various cereal crops and grain-based food along with modified forms that contribute to overall exposure. This study aimed to determine the frequency and level of exposure to Alternaria mycotoxins (tenuazonic acid, TeA; alternariol, AOH; alternariol monomethyl ether, AME; tentoxin, TEN; and altenuene, ALT) in human urine from Beijing adults. A total of 2212 urine samples were collected and analyzed for five mycotoxins using LC-ESI-MS/MS. More than 98% of the samples had at least one Alternaria mycotoxin detected. Among the mycotoxins, AME had the highest detection rate (96.0%), followed by TeA (70.5%). The calculated average daily intake values of AME (12.5 ng/kg b.w.) was 5 times the TTC value (2.5 ng/kg b.w.) set by the EFSA, indicating the potential health risks associated with mycotoxins. Immediate attention and subsequent actions should be taken to identify the sources of mycotoxins and the corresponding exposure pathways to humans in the investigated regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoting Qiao
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Gang Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Jing Du
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Yunjia Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Jie Yin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Hui Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Jie Xie
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - You Jiang
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xiang Fang
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xinhua Dai
- Technology Innovation Center of Mass Spectrometry for State Market Regulation, Center for Advanced Measurement Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Bing Shao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China; School of Food and Bioengineering, Xihua University, Chendu 610039, China.
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16
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Ji X, Xiao Y, Lyu W, Li M, Wang W, Tang B, Wang X, Yang H. Probabilistic Risk Assessment of Combined Exposure to Deoxynivalenol and Emerging Alternaria Toxins in Cereal-Based Food Products for Infants and Young Children in China. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080509. [PMID: 35893751 PMCID: PMC9330788 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) and emerging Alternaria toxins often co-occur in cereal-based products, but the current risk assessment is commonly conducted for only one type of mycotoxin at a time. Compared to adults, infants and young children are more susceptible to mycotoxins through food consumption, especially with cereal-based food products which are the main source of exposure. This study aimed to perform a probabilistic risk assessment of combined exposure to DON and three major Alternaria toxins, namely including alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) through consumption of cereal-based foods for Chinese infants and young children. A total of 872 cereal-based food products were randomly collected and tested for the occurrence of DON and three major Alternaria toxins. The results on mycotoxin occurrence showed the DON, TeA, AOH, and AME was detected in 56.4%, 47.5%, 7.5%, and 5.7% of the samples, respectively. Co-contamination of various mycotoxins was observed in 39.9% of the analyzed samples. A preliminary cumulative risk assessment using the models of hazard index (HI) and combined margin of exposure (MoET) was performed on DON and Alternaria toxins that were present in cereal-based food products for infants and young children in China for the first time. The results showed that only 0.2% and 1.5%, respectively, of individuals exceeded the corresponding reference value for DON and TeA, indicating a low health risk. However, in the case of AME and AOH, the proportion of individuals exceeding the reference value was 24.1% and 33.5%, respectively, indicating the potential health risks. In the cumulative risk assessment of AME and AOH, both HI and MoET values indicated a more serious risk than that related to individual exposure. Further research is necessary to reduce the uncertainties that are associated with the toxicities of the Alternaria toxins and cumulative risk assessment methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Ji
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China; (X.J.); (Y.X.); (W.L.); (W.W.); (B.T.)
| | - Yingping Xiao
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China; (X.J.); (Y.X.); (W.L.); (W.W.); (B.T.)
| | - Wentao Lyu
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China; (X.J.); (Y.X.); (W.L.); (W.W.); (B.T.)
| | - Minglu Li
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100022, China;
| | - Wen Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China; (X.J.); (Y.X.); (W.L.); (W.W.); (B.T.)
| | - Biao Tang
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China; (X.J.); (Y.X.); (W.L.); (W.W.); (B.T.)
| | - Xiaodan Wang
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100022, China;
- Correspondence: (X.W.); (H.Y.)
| | - Hua Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-Products, Institute of Agro-Product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310021, China; (X.J.); (Y.X.); (W.L.); (W.W.); (B.T.)
- Correspondence: (X.W.); (H.Y.)
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17
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Fan K, Guo W, Huang Q, Meng J, Yao Q, Nie D, Han Z, Zhao Z. Assessment of Human Exposure to Five Alternaria Mycotoxins in China by Biomonitoring Approach. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:762. [PMID: 34822546 PMCID: PMC8625692 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
This biomonitoring study was conducted to investigate the concentration levels of five Alternaria mycotoxins in urine samples from 269 healthy volunteers living in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA) and tentoxin (TEN) were detected in 38.3%, 48.7%, 63.9% and 23.4% of urine samples with the concentrations ranging from 0.057 to 45.8 ng/mL, 0.020 to 0.802 ng/mL, 0.050 to 80.6 ng/mL and 0.021 to 0.939 ng/mL, respectively. Altenuene (ALT) was not detected in any urine sample. Based on the urinary concentrations, the probable daily intake (PDI) values of Alternaria mycotoxins were calculated, and 100%, 99.2-100%, 0.372% and 1.12% of participants exceeded the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) values for AOH, AME, TeA and TEN, respectively. This study revealed high potential health risks related to the contaminations of major Alternaria mycotoxins in China and highlighted the necessity for more toxicological studies to provide better basis for further comprehensive risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Fan
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Wenbo Guo
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Qingwen Huang
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Jiajia Meng
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Qi Yao
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine and Life Sciences, Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China;
| | - Dongxia Nie
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Zheng Han
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Zhihui Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
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18
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Orina AS, Gavrilova OP, Gogina NN, Gannibal PB, Gagkaeva TY. Natural Occurrence of Alternaria Fungi and Associated Mycotoxins in Small-Grain Cereals from The Urals and West Siberia Regions of Russia. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13100681. [PMID: 34678974 PMCID: PMC8538951 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13100681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria fungi dominate the grain microbiota in many regions of the world; therefore, the detection of species that are able to produce mycotoxins has received much attention. A total of 178 grain samples of wheat, barley and oat obtained from the Urals and West Siberia regions of Russia in 2017–2019 were included in the study. Grain contamination with Alternaria fungi belonging to sections Alternaria and Infectoriae was analysed using qPCR with specific primers. The occurrence of four mycotoxins produced by Alternaria, AOH, AME, TEN, and TeA, was defined by HPLC-MS/MS. Alternaria DNA was found in all analysed grain samples. The prevalence of DNA of Alternaria sect. Alternaria fungi (range 53 × 10−4–21,731 × 10−4 pg/ng) over the DNA of Alternaria sect. Infectoriae (range 11 × 10−4‒4237 × 10−4 pg/ng) in the grain samples was revealed. Sixty-two percent of grain samples were contaminated by at least two Alternaria mycotoxins. The combination of TEN and TeA was found most often. Eight percent of grain samples were contaminated by all four mycotoxins, and only 3% of samples were free from the analysed secondary toxic metabolites. The amounts varied in a range of 2–53 µg/kg for AOH, 3–56 µg/kg for AME, 3–131 µg/kg for TEN and 9–15,000 µg/kg for TeA. To our knowledge, a new global maximum level of natural contamination of wheat grain with TeA was detected. A positive correlation between the amount of DNA from Alternaria sect. Alternaria and TeA was observed. The significant effects of cereal species and geographic origin of samples on the amounts of DNA and mycotoxins of Alternaria spp. in grain were revealed. Barley was the most heavily contaminated with fungi belonging to both sections. The content of AOH in oat grain was, on average, higher than that found in wheat and barley. The content of TEN in the grain of barley was lower than that in wheat and similar to that in oat. The content of TeA did not depend on the cereal crop. The effect of weather conditions (summer temperature and rainfall) on the final fungal and mycotoxin contamination of grain was discussed. The frequent co-occurrence of different Alternaria fungi and their mycotoxins in grain indicates the need for further studies investigating this issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra S. Orina
- Laboratory of Mycology and Phytopathology, All-Russian Institute of Plant Protection, 196608 St. Petersburg, Russia; (O.P.G.); (P.B.G.); (T.Y.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-812-333-3764
| | - Olga P. Gavrilova
- Laboratory of Mycology and Phytopathology, All-Russian Institute of Plant Protection, 196608 St. Petersburg, Russia; (O.P.G.); (P.B.G.); (T.Y.G.)
| | - Nadezhda N. Gogina
- Laboratory of Biochemical Analysis, All-Russian Scientific Research and Technological Institute of Poultry, 141311 Sergiev Posad, Russia;
| | - Philipp B. Gannibal
- Laboratory of Mycology and Phytopathology, All-Russian Institute of Plant Protection, 196608 St. Petersburg, Russia; (O.P.G.); (P.B.G.); (T.Y.G.)
| | - Tatiana Yu. Gagkaeva
- Laboratory of Mycology and Phytopathology, All-Russian Institute of Plant Protection, 196608 St. Petersburg, Russia; (O.P.G.); (P.B.G.); (T.Y.G.)
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19
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Sá SVMD, Monteiro C, Fernandes JO, Pinto E, Faria MA, Cunha SC. Emerging mycotoxins in infant and children foods: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 63:1707-1721. [PMID: 34486889 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1967282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A proper nutrition is crucial for children's healthy development. Regardless of the usual recommendations to follow a varied diet, some foods can be a source of toxic natural contaminants such as mycotoxins, potent secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. In addition to the most well-known mycotoxins, many of which are subject to tight regulation regarding the maximum levels allowed in different types of food, there is a large group of mycotoxins, the so-called emerging mycotoxins, about which less knowledge has already been acquired, which have gradually been the target of interest from the scientific community due to their prevalence in most foodstuffs, particularly in cereals and cereal-based products. Alternariol and his metabolite alternariol mono-methyl ether, beauvericin, citrinin, culmorin, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, fusaproliferin, kojic acid, moniliformin, sterigmatocystin, tentoxin and tenuazonic acid are the most representative of them. The current review gathered the information of the last ten years that have been published on the levels of emerging mycotoxins in food products dedicated for infants and children. European Union countries are responsible for most of the reported studies, which showed levels that can reach hundreds of mg/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraia V M de Sá
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carolina Monteiro
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - José O Fernandes
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Eugénia Pinto
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR/CIMAR), University of Porto, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Miguel A Faria
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sara C Cunha
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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20
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Crudo F, Aichinger G, Mihajlovic J, Varga E, Dellafiora L, Warth B, Dall'Asta C, Berry D, Marko D. In vitro interactions of Alternaria mycotoxins, an emerging class of food contaminants, with the gut microbiota: a bidirectional relationship. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:2533-2549. [PMID: 33847775 PMCID: PMC8241668 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03043-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The human gut microbiota plays an important role in the maintenance of human health. Factors able to modify its composition might predispose the host to the development of pathologies. Among the various xenobiotics introduced through the diet, Alternaria mycotoxins are speculated to represent a threat for human health. However, limited data are currently available about the bidirectional relation between gut microbiota and Alternaria mycotoxins. In the present work, we investigated the in vitro effects of different concentrations of a complex extract of Alternaria mycotoxins (CE; containing eleven mycotoxins; e.g. 0.153 µM alternariol and 2.3 µM altersetin, at the maximum CE concentration tested) on human gut bacterial strains, as well as the ability of the latter to metabolize or adsorb these compounds. Results from the minimum inhibitory concentration assay showed the scarce ability of CE to inhibit the growth of the tested strains. However, the growth kinetics of most of the strains were negatively affected by exposure to the various CE concentrations, mainly at the highest dose (50 µg/mL). The CE was also found to antagonize the formation of biofilms, already at concentrations of 0.5 µg/mL. LC-MS/MS data analysis of the mycotoxin concentrations found in bacterial pellets and supernatants after 24 h incubation showed the ability of bacterial strains to adsorb some Alternaria mycotoxins, especially the key toxins alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, and altersetin. The tendency of these mycotoxins to accumulate within bacterial pellets, especially in those of Gram-negative strains, was found to be directly related to their lipophilicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Wien, Austria
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Wien, Austria
| | - Jovana Mihajlovic
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Wien, Austria
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Wien, Austria
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy
| | - David Berry
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Wien, Austria
- Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Althanstr. 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
- Joint Microbiome Facility of the Medical University of Vienna and the University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090, Wien, Austria.
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124, Parma, Italy.
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Liang Y, Wang Y, Wang F, Li J, Wang C, Dong J, Ueda H, Xiao Z, Shen Y, Xu Z, Wang H. An enhanced open sandwich immunoassay by molecular evolution for noncompetitive detection of Alternaria mycotoxin tenuazonic acid. Food Chem 2021; 361:130103. [PMID: 34082388 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Open sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (OS-ELISA), a novel noncompetitive immunoassay format, has shown great potential in rapid detection for small molecules compared with traditional competitive format. Here, an enhanced OS-ELISA towards the mycotoxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) was developed for the first time based on heavy chain variable region (VH) and light chain variable region (VL) from the hybridoma cells (3F10) producing anti-TeA monoclonal antibody (mAb). The established OS-ELISA exhibited a limit of detection of 0.08 ng/mL, and was 13 times more sensitive than mAb-based indirect competitive ELISA (ic-ELISA). The proposed assay was also applied to detect TeA contents in juice, flour and tomato ketchup samples with satisfactory recoveries of 87.6%-111.3%. Finally, the great accuracy of the established OS-ELISA method was validated by the standard ultra-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Liang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Guangzhou Institute of Food Inspection, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Feng Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Jiadong Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Chenglong Wang
- Guangzhou Institute of Food Inspection, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Jinhua Dong
- Key Laboratory for Biological Medicine in Shandong Universities, Weifang Key Laboratory for Antibody Medicine, School of Bioscience and Technology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261053, China
| | - Hiroshi Ueda
- World Research Hub Initiative, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
| | - Zhili Xiao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yudong Shen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Zhenlin Xu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
| | - Hong Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
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Jiang D, Wei D, Li H, Wang L, Jiang N, Li Y, Wang M. Natural occurrence of Alternaria mycotoxins in wheat and potential of reducing associated risks using magnolol. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2021; 101:3071-3077. [PMID: 33124688 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wheat is one of three major food crops in China. Alternaria species can cause spoilage of wheat with consequent mycotoxin accumulation. Alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) are the most common and frequently studied mycotoxins. There are limited regulations placed on Alternaria mycotoxin concentrations worldwide due to the lack of toxicity data available. More data on the levels of mycotoxin contamination are also needed. It is also important to reduce the risks of Alternaria mycotoxins. RESULTS One hundred and thirty-two wheat samples were collected from Hebei Province, China, and analyzed for AOH, AME, and TeA. Tenuazonic acid was found to be the predominant Alternaria mycotoxin, especially in flour samples. Studying Alternaria species that cause black-point disease of wheat indicated that Alternaria alternata and Alternaria tenuissima were the dominant species. Most of the Alternaria strains studied produced more than one mycotoxin and TeA was produced at the highest concentration, which may have resulted in the high level of TeA contamination in the wheat samples. Furthermore, magnolol displayed obvious antifungal and antimycotoxigenic activity against Alternaria. This is the first report on the antimycotoxigenic activity of magnolol against Alternaria species. CONCLUSION The Alternaria mycotoxin contamination levels in wheat and wheat products from Hebei Province, China, were correlated with the toxigenic capacity of the Alternaria strains colonizing the wheat. Considering its safety, magnolol could be developed as a natural fungicide in wheat, or as a natural alternative food preservative based on its strong antifungal and antimycotoxigenic activity against Alternaria strains. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongmei Jiang
- Beijing Research Center for Agricultural Standards and Testing, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
- Risk Assessment Laboratory for Agro-Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Dizhe Wei
- Beijing Research Center for Agricultural Standards and Testing, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
- Risk Assessment Laboratory for Agro-Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Hongtao Li
- Institute of Genetics and Physiology/Research Center for Agricultural Products Quality and Safety, Hebei Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Liuqing Wang
- Beijing Research Center for Agricultural Standards and Testing, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
- Risk Assessment Laboratory for Agro-Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Jiang
- Beijing Research Center for Agricultural Standards and Testing, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
- Risk Assessment Laboratory for Agro-Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Yunchao Li
- Institute of Genetics and Physiology/Research Center for Agricultural Products Quality and Safety, Hebei Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Beijing Research Center for Agricultural Standards and Testing, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, China
- Risk Assessment Laboratory for Agro-Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
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23
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Bansal M, Saifi IJ, Dev I, Sonkar AK, Dixit S, Singh SP, Ansari KM. Occurrence of Alternariol and Alternariolmonomethyl ether in edible oils: Their thermal stability and intake assessment in state of Uttar Pradesh, India. J Food Sci 2021; 86:1124-1131. [PMID: 33580502 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.15629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 01/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) and Alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) mycotoxins are found to be present naturally in various food commodities, such as barley, oats, pepper, rye, sorghum, sunflower seeds, tomatoes, and wheat. A few epidemiological studies have correlated the consumption of Alternaria-contaminated cereal grains with higher occurrence of esophageal cancer in Chinese populations. In addition, several studies have reported the toxicological properties of Alternaria mycotoxins. However, surveillance data on AOH and AME occurrence are still limited. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine the presence of AOH and AME in various commonly consumed, edible oils using HPLC-FLD method. Thirty four percent of samples were found positive for AOH and 35% for AME. Moreover, AOH retained 80% stability, while AME retained 84% stability, after deep frying for 25 min, which is an important factor with respect to Indian cooking style. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the presence of Alternaria mycotoxins in edible oils and their probable dietary intake in Indian population. This surveillance study may help in formulating guidelines for Alternaria mycotoxin levels in India, which are not yet implemented by Food Safety and Standards Authority of India. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: At present, no safety guidelines exist for Alternaria mycotoxins in any part of the world. This study will help the regulatory bodies to set permissible levels of Alternaria mycotoxins to safeguard the health of consumers. This study shows that Alternaria mycotoxins are heat stable even after deep frying for 25 min. The data will also help to issue guidelines against exposure of these mycotoxins, keeping in the mind the heat stability factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megha Bansal
- Food Toxicology Laboratory. Food, Drug, and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, UP, 226001, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, UP, 201002, India
| | - Ishrat Jahan Saifi
- Food Toxicology Laboratory. Food, Drug, and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, UP, 226001, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, UP, 201002, India
| | - Indra Dev
- Food Toxicology Laboratory. Food, Drug, and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, UP, 226001, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, UP, 201002, India
| | - Aashish Kumar Sonkar
- Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, UP, 226001, India
| | - Sumita Dixit
- Food Toxicology Laboratory. Food, Drug, and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, UP, 226001, India
| | - Sheelendra Pratap Singh
- Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, UP, 226001, India
| | - Kausar Mahmood Ansari
- Food Toxicology Laboratory. Food, Drug, and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Vishvigyan Bhawan, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow, UP, 226001, India
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24
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Guo H, Ji J, Wang JS, Sun X. Co-contamination and interaction of fungal toxins and other environmental toxins. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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25
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Development of a Monoclonal Antibody-Based ELISA for the Detection of Alternaria Mycotoxin Tenuazonic Acid in Food Samples. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-020-01780-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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26
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Masiello M, Somma S, Susca A, Ghionna V, Logrieco AF, Franzoni M, Ravaglia S, Meca G, Moretti A. Molecular Identification and Mycotoxin Production by Alternaria Species Occurring on Durum Wheat, Showing Black Point Symptoms. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12040275. [PMID: 32340279 PMCID: PMC7232423 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Black point is a fungal disease of wheat, mainly associated with mycotoxigenic Alternaria species. Affected wheat kernels are characterized by dark brown discolouration of the embryo region and reduction of grain quality. Potential risk is the possible accumulation of Alternaria mycotoxins, alternariol (AOH), alternariol-monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TA), and altenuene (ALT), provided by haemato-toxic, genotoxic, and mutagenic activities. One hundred and twenty durum wheat samples belonging to 30 different genotypes grown in Bologna and Modena areas, in Italy, showing black point symptoms, were analyzed for Alternaria species and their mycotoxin contamination. Alternariol was selected as an indicator of the capability of the Alternaria species to produce mycotoxin in vivo in field conditions. The data showed that Alternaria species occurred in 118 out of 120 wheat kernels samples, with the incidence of infected kernels ranging between 1% and 26%. Moreover, AOH was detected by using a HPLC with a diode array detector (LC-DAD) in 98 out of 120 samples with values ranging between 24 and 262 µg Kg−1. Ninety-two Alternaria representative strains, previously identified morphologically, were identified at species/section level using gene sequencing, and therefore were analyzed for their mycotoxin profiles. Eighty-four strains, phylogenetically grouped in the Alternaria section, produced AOH, AME, and TA with values up to 8064, 14,341, and 3683 µg g−1, respectively, analyzed by using a LC-DAD. On the other hand, eight Alternaria strains, included in Infectoriae Section, showed a very low or no capability to produce mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Masiello
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council (CNR-ISPA), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy; (S.S.); (A.S.); (V.G.); (A.F.L.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (A.M.)
| | - Stefania Somma
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council (CNR-ISPA), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy; (S.S.); (A.S.); (V.G.); (A.F.L.)
| | - Antonia Susca
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council (CNR-ISPA), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy; (S.S.); (A.S.); (V.G.); (A.F.L.)
| | - Veronica Ghionna
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council (CNR-ISPA), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy; (S.S.); (A.S.); (V.G.); (A.F.L.)
| | - Antonio Francesco Logrieco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council (CNR-ISPA), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy; (S.S.); (A.S.); (V.G.); (A.F.L.)
| | - Matteo Franzoni
- S.I.S. Società Italiana Sementi S.p.A, Via Mirandola 1, 40068 San Lazzaro di Savena (BO), Italy; (M.F.); (S.R.)
| | - Stefano Ravaglia
- S.I.S. Società Italiana Sementi S.p.A, Via Mirandola 1, 40068 San Lazzaro di Savena (BO), Italy; (M.F.); (S.R.)
| | - Giuseppe Meca
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Nutrition and Food Science Area, University of Valencia (Spain), Avenida Vicent Andres Estelles s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain;
| | - Antonio Moretti
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council (CNR-ISPA), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy; (S.S.); (A.S.); (V.G.); (A.F.L.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (A.M.)
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Agriopoulou S, Stamatelopoulou E, Varzakas T. Advances in Occurrence, Importance, and Mycotoxin Control Strategies: Prevention and Detoxification in Foods. Foods 2020; 9:E137. [PMID: 32012820 PMCID: PMC7074356 DOI: 10.3390/foods9020137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic substances that can infect many foods with carcinogenic, genotoxic, teratogenic, nephrotoxic, and hepatotoxic effects. Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs causes diseases worldwide. The major classes of mycotoxins that are of the greatest agroeconomic importance are aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, emerging Fusarium mycotoxins, enniatins, ergot alkaloids, Alternaria toxins, and patulin. Thus, in order to mitigate mycotoxin contamination of foods, many control approaches are used. Prevention, detoxification, and decontamination of mycotoxins can contribute in this purpose in the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages. Therefore, the purpose of the review is to elaborate on the recent advances regarding the occurrence of main mycotoxins in many types of important agricultural products, as well as the methods of inactivation and detoxification of foods from mycotoxins in order to reduce or fully eliminate them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Agriopoulou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of the Peloponnese, Antikalamos, 24100 Kalamata, Greece; (E.S.); (T.V.)
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Gagkaeva T, Gavrilova O, Orina A, Burkin A, Khusaynov K. Microbiological quality of grain cultivated in the North Caucasus region in 2019. BIO WEB OF CONFERENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1051/bioconf/20202700151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The microbiological quality of 23 grain samples of wheat and barley harvested in the North Caucasus in 2019 was analysed on the basis of the percentage of grains infected by fungi and the amounts of trichothecene-producing Fusarium DNA and Alternaria DNA. The mycotoxins produced by these fungi were also determined. Alternaria and Fusarium fungi were the predominant fungi in the mycobiota of grain, accounting for at 93% and 14% of the observed fungi, respectively. Alternariol produced by Alternaria fungi was detected in 65% of samples, and its content (11-675 ppb) was positively correlated with the abundance of fungi of section Alternaria in grain. F. langsethiae was found in wheat grain from the Chechen Republic for the first time. The T-2 toxin produced by this fungus was found in 25% of samples, and its content in one barley grain reached 650 ppb, which exceeded the permitted level for this mycotoxin. The mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, which are mainly produced by F. graminearum, were also identified in 13% of the grain samples. The positive correlation between the amounts of both these mycotoxins and the DNA of Tri-Fusarium was established.
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29
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Crudo F, Varga E, Aichinger G, Galaverna G, Marko D, Dall'Asta C, Dellafiora L. Co-Occurrence and Combinatory Effects of Alternaria Mycotoxins and other Xenobiotics of Food Origin: Current Scenario and Future Perspectives. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E640. [PMID: 31684145 PMCID: PMC6891783 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are low-molecular weight compounds produced by diverse genera of molds that may contaminate food and feed threatening the health of humans and animals. Recent findings underline the importance of studying the combined occurrence of multiple mycotoxins and the relevance of assessing the toxicity their simultaneous exposure may cause in living organisms. In this context, for the first time, this work has critically reviewed the most relevant data concerning the occurrence and toxicity of mycotoxins produced by Alternaria spp., which are among the most important emerging risks to be assessed in food safety, alone or in combination with other mycotoxins and bioactive food constituents. According to the literature covered, multiple Alternaria mycotoxins may often occur simultaneously in contaminated food, along with several other mycotoxins and food bioactives inherently present in the studied matrices. Although the toxicity of combinations naturally found in food has been rarely assessed experimentally, the data collected so far, clearly point out that chemical mixtures may differ in their toxicity compared to the effect of toxins tested individually. The data presented here may provide a solid foothold to better support the risk assessment of Alternaria mycotoxins highlighting the actual role of chemical mixtures on influencing their toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Crudo
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Gianni Galaverna
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy.
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Janić Hajnal E, Mastilović J, Bagi F, Orčić D, Budakov D, Kos J, Savić Z. Effect of Wheat Milling Process on the Distribution of Alternaria Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E139. [PMID: 30832284 PMCID: PMC6468426 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria toxins are mycotoxins produced by various Alternaria species which, besides the Fusarium species, represent the principal contaminants of wheat worldwide. As currently, only limited information on the behaviour of Alternaria toxins during processing of cereals is available, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the dry milling process of wheat on Alternaria toxins distribution. Alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) content were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in all milling fractions of untreated (control), fungicide-treated, Alternaria tenuissima inoculated and commercial wheat sample. After dry milling process, in last break and milling flows and by-products, increased concentration of examined Alternaria toxins was detected. TeA was quantified in almost all milling fractions in all tested wheat samples, while AOH and AME were detectable mostly in last break and milling flows and by-products. In respect to the contamination with Alternaria toxins, white flour can be considered as relatively safe product. Since Alternaria toxins are concentrated mainly in the peripheral parts of the kernel, a special attention should be given to their content in low-grade flours and milling by-products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabet Janić Hajnal
- Research Center for Technology of Plant Based Food Products, Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Jasna Mastilović
- Research Center for Technology of Plant Based Food Products, Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Ferenc Bagi
- Department of Plant and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Dejan Orčić
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Dragana Budakov
- Department of Plant and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Jovana Kos
- Research Center for Technology of Plant Based Food Products, Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Zagorka Savić
- Department of Plant and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
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Topi D, Tavčar-Kalcher G, Pavšič-Vrtač K, Babič J, Jakovac-Strajn B. Alternaria mycotoxins in grains from Albania: alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, tenuazonic acid and tentoxin. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2019. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2018.2342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The presence of four Alternaria toxins in maize and wheat harvested in 2014 and 2015 in Albania was investigated. In total, 45 samples of maize and 71 samples of wheat were collected from the country’s main producing regions. The presence of alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA) and tentoxin (TTX) was studied by an LC-MS/MS method. The incidence of Alternaria toxins in maize was 45.2% in the year 2014 and 7.1% in 2015, and the contamination rate in wheat was 82.9% in 2014 and 86.1% in 2015. Considering maize and wheat samples together, 65.2 and 64.0% of samples were contaminated by Alternaria toxins in the harvesting years 2014 and 2015, respectively. The occurrence rate was much higher in wheat than in maize, but the concentrations were higher in maize. The highest concentration of total Alternaria toxins in maize was 1,283 μg/kg (mean 243.0 μg/kg, median 110.2 μg/kg), while the maximum concentration in wheat was 175.7 μg/kg (mean 29.9 μg/kg, median 16.5 μg/kg). TeA was the major Alternaria mycotoxin detected. It was found in 70 out of 116 samples (60.3%). Chronic exposure of the adult population in Albania to Alternaria toxins through cereal consumption was assessed by the estimated daily intake (EDI) taking into account daily consumption of wheat and maize of 380 and 4.9 g, respectively. The main contribution to chronic dietary exposure was by TeA originating from wheat, with EDIs of 88.6-94.1 ng/kg body weight (bw) per day in 2014 and 152.7-155.5 ng/kg bw per day in 2015. TTX EDIs were 7.8- 34.0 and 10.6-38.7 ng/kg bw per day in 2014 and 2015, respectively. The contribution of AOH and AME originating from wheat was 0-31.7 ng/kg bw per day. The contribution of Alternaria toxins through maize consumption was significantly lower.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. Topi
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- University of Tirana, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Boulevard Zogu 1, 25, Tirana, Albania
| | - G. Tavčar-Kalcher
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - K. Pavšič-Vrtač
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - J. Babič
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - B. Jakovac-Strajn
- University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Janić-Hajnal E, Kos J, Orčić D. Stability of Alternaria toxins during bread-making process. FOOD AND FEED RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.5937/ffr1901073j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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A novel hapten and monoclonal antibody-based indirect competitive ELISA for simultaneous analysis of alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether in wheat. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Qiao X, Yin J, Yang Y, Zhang J, Shao B, Li H, Chen H. Determination of Alternaria Mycotoxins in Fresh Sweet Cherries and Cherry-Based Products: Method Validation and Occurrence. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:11846-11853. [PMID: 30350977 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b05065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Sweet cherry is susceptible to disease caused by the Alternaria species and produces various Alternaria mycotoxins. Analytical methodologies based on solid-phase extraction (SPE) and LC-MS/MS to simultaneously determine five main Alternaria mycotoxins (tenuazonic acid, 1; alternariol, 2; alternariol methyl ether, 3; altenuene, 4; and tentoxin, 5) in fresh sweet cherries and cherry products were developed and validated. The limits of quantitation (LOQ) of the analytes ranged from 0.002-0.066 μg/kg. The method was successfully applied to 83 fresh cherry and cherry-related product samples. 1 and 5 were the predominant toxins with detection frequencies >50%, followed by 3 (42%), 2 (35%), and 4 (31%). Daily intakes of Alternaria mycotoxins via fresh sweet cherries were assessed preliminarily using the measured concentrations, and consumption data were obtained from a web-based dietary questionnaire ( n = 476). The maximum exposure of 1 and 3 were 4.6 and 16.7 times the threshold of the toxicological concern (TTC) value, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoting Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology , Nanchang University , Nanchang 330047 , P.R. China
| | - Jie Yin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning , Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control , Beijing 100013 , P.R. China
| | - Yunjia Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning , Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control , Beijing 100013 , P.R. China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning , Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control , Beijing 100013 , P.R. China
| | - Bing Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology , Nanchang University , Nanchang 330047 , P.R. China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning , Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control , Beijing 100013 , P.R. China
| | - Hui Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnostic and Traceability Technologies for Food Poisoning , Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control , Beijing 100013 , P.R. China
| | - Hongbing Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology , Nanchang University , Nanchang 330047 , P.R. China
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Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed in China: Occurrence, detection techniques, toxicological effects and advances in mitigation technologies. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Romero Bernal ÁR, Reynoso CM, García Londoño VA, Broggi LE, Resnik SL. Alternaria toxins in Argentinean wheat, bran, and flour. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2018; 12:24-30. [PMID: 30160642 DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2018.1509900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Alternaria species have been reported to infect a wide variety of vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops. Wheat is one of the most consumed cereal worldwide. A sensitive HPLC-DAD methodology was applied to quantify alternariol (AOH), alternariol methyl ether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) in 65 samples of whole wheat, bran, and flour. The extraction methodology allowed extracting the three toxins simultaneously. Limits of detection in wheat were 3.4, 4.5, and 0.5 µg kg-1 for AOH, AME and TeA, respectively. For bran, these data were 3.1, 4.5, and 12 µg kg-1 and for flour 50, 70, and 14 µg kg-1, respectively. The studied recoveries were higher than 70% and RSD was below 10%. Wheat and bran samples showed low AOH and AME contamination compared to TeA. The averages levels found for TeA in wheat, bran and flour were 19,190, 16,760, and 7360 µg kg-1, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángela Rocío Romero Bernal
- a Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica , Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires , Argentina.,b Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento Química Orgánica e Industrias , Universidad de Buenos Aires , Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires , Argentina
| | - Cora Marcela Reynoso
- b Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento Química Orgánica e Industrias , Universidad de Buenos Aires , Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires , Argentina
| | - Víctor Alonso García Londoño
- b Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento Química Orgánica e Industrias , Universidad de Buenos Aires , Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires , Argentina.,c Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina , Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires , Argentina.,d Fundación de Investigaciones Científicas Teresa Benedictina de la Cruz , Luján , Argentina
| | - Leticia Elvira Broggi
- e Facultad de Bromatología , Universidad Nacional de Entre Ríos , Gualeguaychú , Argentina
| | - Silvia Liliana Resnik
- b Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento Química Orgánica e Industrias , Universidad de Buenos Aires , Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires , Argentina.,d Fundación de Investigaciones Científicas Teresa Benedictina de la Cruz , Luján , Argentina.,f Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires , La Plata , Argentina
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Ultra-sensitive, stable isotope assisted quantification of multiple urinary mycotoxin exposure biomarkers. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1019:84-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.02.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Puntscher H, Kütt ML, Skrinjar P, Mikula H, Podlech J, Fröhlich J, Marko D, Warth B. Tracking emerging mycotoxins in food: development of an LC-MS/MS method for free and modified Alternaria toxins. Anal Bioanal Chem 2018; 410:4481-4494. [PMID: 29766221 PMCID: PMC6021461 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-1105-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins produced by Alternaria fungi are ubiquitous food contaminants, but analytical methods for generating comprehensive exposure data are rare. We describe the development of an LC-MS/MS method covering 17 toxins for investigating the natural occurrence of free and modified Alternaria toxins in tomato sauce, sunflower seed oil, and wheat flour. Target analytes included alternariol (AOH), AOH-3-glucoside, AOH-9-glucoside, AOH-3-sulfate, alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), AME-3-glucoside, AME-3-sulfate, altenuene, isoaltenuene, tenuazonic acid (TeA), tentoxin (TEN), altertoxin I and II, alterperylenol, stemphyltoxin III, altenusin, and altenuic acid III. Extensive optimization resulted in a time- and cost-effective sample preparation protocol and a chromatographic baseline separation of included isomers. Overall, adequate limits of detection (0.03–9 ng/g) and quantitation (0.6–18 ng/g), intermediate precision (9–44%), and relative recovery values (75–100%) were achieved. However, stemphyltoxin III, AOH-3-sulfate, AME-3-sulfate, altenusin, and altenuic acid III showed recoveries in wheat flour below 70%, while their performance was stable and reproducible. Our pilot study with samples from the Austrian retail market demonstrated that tomato sauces (n = 12) contained AOH, AME, TeA, and TEN in concentrations up to 20, 4, 322, and 0.6 ng/g, while sunflower seed oil (n = 7) and wheat flour samples (n = 9) were contaminated at comparatively lower levels. Interestingly and of relevance for risk assessment, AOH-9-glucoside, discovered for the first time in naturally contaminated food items, and AME-3-sulfate were found in concentrations similar to their parent toxins. In conclusion, the established multi-analyte method proved to be fit for purpose for generating comprehensive Alternaria toxin occurrence data in different food matrices. ᅟ ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Puntscher
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mary-Liis Kütt
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Philipp Skrinjar
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (TU Wien), Getreidemarkt 9, 1060, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hannes Mikula
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (TU Wien), Getreidemarkt 9, 1060, Vienna, Austria
| | - Joachim Podlech
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Fritz-Haber-Weg 6, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Johannes Fröhlich
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (TU Wien), Getreidemarkt 9, 1060, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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Liu B, Ge N, Peng B, Pan S. Kinetic and isotherm studies on the adsorption of tenuazonic acid from fruit juice using inactivated LAB. J FOOD ENG 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2017.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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40
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Fluorescence Polarization Immunoassay for Alternaria Mycotoxin Tenuazonic Acid Detection and Molecular Modeling Studies of Antibody Recognition. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-018-1236-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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41
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Development of an Indirect Competitive ELISA for Analysis of Alternariol in Bread and Bran Samples. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-017-1126-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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42
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Ge N, Xu J, Peng B, Pan S. Adsorption mechanism of tenuazonic acid using inactivated lactic acid bacteria. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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43
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Xiao ZL, Wang YL, Shen YD, Xu ZL, Dong JX, Wang H, Situ C, Wang F, Yang JY, Lei HT, Sun YM. Specific Monoclonal Antibody-Based Enzyme Immunoassay for Sensitive and Reliable Detection of Alternaria Mycotoxin Iso-Tenuazonic Acid in Food Products. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-017-1033-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Alternariais one of the major mycotoxigenic fungal genera with more than 70 reported metabolites.Alternariamycotoxins showed notably toxicity, such as mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, induction of DNA strand break, sphingolipid metabolism disruption, or inhibition of enzymes activity and photophosphorylation. This review reports on the toxicity, stability, metabolism, current analytical methods, and prevalence ofAlternariamycotoxins in food and feed through the most recent published research. Half of the publications were focused on fruits, vegetables, and derived products—mainly tomato and apples—while cereals and cereal by-products represented 38%. The most studied compounds were alternariol, alternariol methyl ether, tentoxin, and tenuazonic acid, but altenuene, altertoxins (I, II, and III), and macrosporin have been gaining importance in recent years. Solid-liquid extraction (50%) with acetonitrile or ethyl acetate was the most common extraction methodology, followed by QuEChERS and dilution-direct injection (both 14%). High- and ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was the predominant determination technique (80%). The highest levels of alternariol and alternariol methyl ether were found in lentils, oilseeds, tomatoes, carrots, juices, wines, and cereals. Tenuazonic acid highest levels were detected in cereals followed by beer, while alternariol, alternariol methyl ether, tenuazonic acid, and tentoxin were found in legumes, nuts, and oilseeds.
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Vejdovszky K, Schmidt V, Warth B, Marko D. Combinatory estrogenic effects between the isoflavone genistein and the mycotoxins zearalenone and alternariol in vitro. Mol Nutr Food Res 2016; 61. [PMID: 27739238 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201600526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE The isoflavone genistein, present in soy-based food and dietary supplements, is known for its estrogenic potential. In addition to phytoestrogens, food may also contain mycotoxins with estrogenic properties like zearalenone or alternariol, raising the question on potential combinatory effects of these xenoestrogens. METHODS AND RESULTS Combinatory estrogenic effects of genistein with zearalenone or alternariol were studied in the human endometrial adenocarcinoma cell line Ishikawa as expression of alkaline phosphatase (AlP) activity. Combinations of genistein with either zearalenone or alternariol, showed synergism and antagonism in the AlP assay, depending on the combination ratios and the concentration range. For combinations of zearalenone with genistein synergistic effects dominated. CONCLUSION We demonstrate that mixture effects of phyto- and mycoestrogens potentially pose unexpected risks to consumers. Our study highlights the necessity of according considerations regarding combinatory effects in future risk assessment. The applied in vitro study design represents a cost-efficient screening method to discover interactive effects of estrogens as a basic decision tool for priority risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Vejdovszky
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Verena Schmidt
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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46
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Assunção R, Silva M, Alvito P. Challenges in risk assessment of multiple mycotoxins in food. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2016. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2016.2039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Most fungi are able to produce several mycotoxins simultaneously and, consequently, to contaminate a wide variety of foodstuffs. Therefore, the risk of human co-exposure to multiple mycotoxins is real, raising a growing concern about their potential impact on human health. Besides, government and industry regulations are usually based on individual toxicities, and do not take into account the complex dynamics associated with interactions between co-occurring groups of mycotoxins. The present work assembles, for the first time, the challenges posed by the likelihood of human co-exposure to these toxins and the possibility of interactive effects occurring after absorption, towards knowledge generation to support a more accurate human risk assessment. Regarding hazard assessment, a physiologically-based framework is proposed in order to infer the health effects from exposure to multiple mycotoxins in food, including knowledge on the bioaccessibility, toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of single and combined toxins. The prioritisation of the most relevant mixtures to be tested under experimental conditions that attempt to mimic human exposure and the use of adequate mathematical approaches to evaluate interactions, particularly concerning the combined genotoxicity, were identified as the main challenges for hazard assessment. Regarding exposure assessment, the need of harmonised food consumption data, availability of multianalyte methods for mycotoxin quantification, management of left-censored data, use of probabilistic models and multibiomarker approaches are highlighted, in order to develop a more precise and realistic exposure assessment. To conclude, further studies on hazard and exposure assessment of multiple mycotoxins, using harmonised methodologies, are crucial towards an improvement of data quality and a more reliable and robust risk characterisation, which is central for risk management and, consequently, to prevent mycotoxins-associated adverse effects. A deep understanding of the nature of interactions between multiple mycotoxins will contribute to draw real conclusions on the health impact of human exposure to mycotoxin mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Assunção
- Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
- IIFA, Universidade de Évora, Palácio do Vimioso, Largo Marquês de Marialva, Apartado 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal
| | - M.J. Silva
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Center for Toxicogenomics and Human Health (ToxOmics), Nova Medical School, FCM-UNL, Campo Mártires da Pátria 130, 1169-056 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - P. Alvito
- Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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Xu W, Han X, Li F, Zhang L. Natural Occurrence of Alternaria Toxins in the 2015 Wheat from Anhui Province, China. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E308. [PMID: 27792182 PMCID: PMC5127105 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8110308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 10/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The exposure to Alternaria toxins from grain and grain-based products has been reported to be related to human esophageal cancer in China. In this study, a total of 370 freshly harvested wheat kernel samples collected from Anhui province of China in 2015 were analyzed for the four Alternaria toxins tenuazonic acid (TeA), tentoxin (TEN), alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method (HPLC-MS/MS). TeA was the predominant toxin detected followed by TEN, AOH and AME. The concentrations of the four Alternaria toxins varied geographically. The samples from Fuyang district showed higher TEN concentration levels than the other regions studied (p < 0.05). Furthermore, 95% (352/370) of the wheat samples were positive for more than one type of Alternaria toxins. Positive correlation was observed between concentration levels of TeA and TEN, AOH and AME, TeA and AOH, and the total dibenzopyrone derivatives (AOH + AME) and TeA. Results indicate that there is a need to set the tolerance limit for Alternaria toxins in China, and more data on the contamination of these toxins in agro-products is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Xu
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, West China College of Public Health, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.
| | - Xiaomin Han
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Fengqin Li
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Ministry of Health, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Lishi Zhang
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, West China College of Public Health, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.
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Hövelmann Y, Hickert S, Cramer B, Humpf HU. Determination of Exposure to the Alternaria Mycotoxin Tenuazonic Acid and Its Isomer allo-Tenuazonic Acid in a German Population by Stable Isotope Dilution HPLC-MS(3). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:6641-6647. [PMID: 27452834 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b02735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The content of the Alternaria toxin tenuazonic acid and its isomer allo-tenuazonic acid was quantitated in urine of a German cohort (n = 48) using a newly developed and successfully validated solid phase extraction based stable isotope dilution HPLC-MS(3) method. Tenuazonic acid was detected in all of the samples and quantifiable in 97.9% of these samples in a range of 0.16-44.4 ng/mL (average = 6.58 ng/mL) or 0.07-63.8 ng/mg creatinine (average = 8.13 ng/mg creatinine). allo-Tenuazonic acid was for the first time detected in human urine (95.8% of the samples positive) and quantitated in 68.8% of the samples in a range of 0.11-5.72 ng/mL (average = 1.25 ng/mL) or 0.08-10.1 ng/mg creatinine (average = 1.52 ng/mg creatinine), representing 3.40-25.0% of the sum of both isomers (average = 12.4%). Food-frequency questionnaires were used to document food consumption of study participants to correlate mycotoxin exposure to nutritional habits. Although no statistically significant correlation between consumption of a specific food and urinary excretion of tenuazonic acid could be determined, a trend regarding elevated intake of cereal products and higher excretion of tenuazonic acid was evident. On the basis of these results, a provisional mean daily intake (PDI) for both tenuazonic acid and allo-tenuazonic acid was calculated, being 0.183 and 0.025 μg/kg body weight, respectively. A combined mean PDI for both isomers amounts to 0.208 μg/kg body weight with the highest individual PDI for one of the participants (1.582 μg/kg body weight) slightly exceeding the threshold of toxicological concern assumed for tenuazonic acid by the European Food Safety Authority of 1.500 μg/kg body weight. This is the first study to investigate the tenuazonic acid content in human urine of a larger sample cohort enabling the calculation of PDIs for tenuazonic acid and allo-tenuazonic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick Hövelmann
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Sebastian Hickert
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
- NRW Graduate School of Chemistry , Wilhelm-Klemm-Straße 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany
- NRW Graduate School of Chemistry , Wilhelm-Klemm-Straße 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
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Duringer J, Fombonne E, Craig M. No Association between Mycotoxin Exposure and Autism: A Pilot Case-Control Study in School-Aged Children. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8070224. [PMID: 27447670 PMCID: PMC4963856 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8070224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2016] [Revised: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Evaluation of environmental risk factors in the development of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is needed for a more complete understanding of disease etiology and best approaches for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. A pilot experiment in 54 children (n = 25 ASD, n = 29 controls; aged 12.4 ± 3.9 years) screened for 87 urinary mycotoxins via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to assess current exposure. Zearalenone, zearalenone-4-glucoside, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, and altenuene were detected in 9/54 (20%) samples, most near the limit of detection. No mycotoxin/group of mycotoxins was associated with ASD-diagnosed children. To identify potential correlates of mycotoxin presence in urine, we further compared the nine subjects where a urinary mycotoxin was confirmed to the remaining 45 participants and found no difference based on the presence or absence of mycotoxin for age (t-test; p = 0.322), gender (Fisher’s exact test; p = 0.456), exposure or not to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (Fisher’s exact test; p = 0.367), or to other medications (Fisher’s exact test; p = 1.00). While no positive association was found, more sophisticated sample preparation techniques and instrumentation, coupled with selectivity for a smaller group of mycotoxins, could improve sensitivity and detection. Further, broadening sampling to in utero (mothers) and newborn-toddler years would cover additional exposure windows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Duringer
- Department of Environmental & Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, 139 Oak Creek Building, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
| | - Eric Fombonne
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute for Development & Disability, Oregon Health & Science University, 840 SW Gaines St., Portland, OR 97239, USA.
| | - Morrie Craig
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, 105 Magruder Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
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Vejdovszky K, Hahn K, Braun D, Warth B, Marko D. Synergistic estrogenic effects of Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins in vitro. Arch Toxicol 2016; 91:1447-1460. [PMID: 27401186 PMCID: PMC5316405 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1795-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites formed by various fungal species that are found as natural contaminants in food. This very heterogeneous group of compounds triggers multiple toxic mechanisms, including endocrine disruptive potential. Current risk assessment of mycotoxins, as for most chemical substances, is based on the effects of single compounds. However, concern on a potential enhancement of risks by interactions of single substances in naturally occurring mixtures has greatly increased recently. In this study, the combinatory effects of three mycoestrogens were investigated in detail. This includes the endocrine disruptors zearalenone (ZEN) and α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) produced by Fusarium fungi and alternariol (AOH), a cytotoxic and estrogenic mycotoxin formed by Alternaria species. For evaluation of effects, estrogen-dependent activation of alkaline phosphatase (AlP) and cell proliferation were tested in the adenocarcinoma cell line Ishikawa. The estrogenic potential varied among the single substances. Half maximum effect concentrations (EC50) for AlP activation were evaluated for α-ZEL, ZEN and AOH as 37 pM, 562 pM and 995 nM, respectively. All three mycotoxins were found to act as partial agonists. The majority of binary combinations, even at very low concentrations in the case of α-ZEL, showed strong synergism in the AlP assay. These potentiating phenomena of mycotoxin mixtures highlight the urgent need to incorporate combinatory effects into future risk assessment, especially when endocrine disruptors are involved. To the best of our knowledge, this study presents the first investigation on synergistic effects of mycoestrogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Vejdovszky
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kathrin Hahn
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dominik Braun
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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