1
|
Elovsson G, Klingstedt T, Brown M, Nilsson KPR, Brorsson AC. A Novel Drosophila Model of Alzheimer's Disease to Study Aβ Proteotoxicity in the Digestive Tract. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2105. [PMID: 38396782 PMCID: PMC10888607 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25042105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Amyloid-β (Aβ) proteotoxicity is associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is caused by protein aggregation, resulting in neuronal damage in the brain. In the search for novel treatments, Drosophila melanogaster has been extensively used to screen for anti-Aβ proteotoxic agents in studies where toxic Aβ peptides are expressed in the fly brain. Since drug molecules often are administered orally there is a risk that they fail to reach the brain, due to their inability to cross the brain barrier. To circumvent this problem, we have designed a novel Drosophila model that expresses the Aβ peptides in the digestive tract. In addition, a built-in apoptotic sensor provides a fluorescent signal from the green fluorescent protein as a response to caspase activity. We found that expressing different variants of Aβ1-42 resulted in proteotoxic phenotypes such as reduced longevity, aggregate deposition, and the presence of apoptotic cells. Taken together, this gut-based Aβ-expressing fly model can be used to study the mechanisms behind Aβ proteotoxicity and to identify different substances that can modify Aβ proteotoxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ann-Christin Brorsson
- Department of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden; (G.E.); (T.K.); (M.B.); (K.P.R.N.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Farkas A, Zsindely N, Nagy G, Kovács L, Deák P, Bodai L. The ubiquitin thioesterase YOD1 ameliorates mutant Huntingtin induced pathology in Drosophila. Sci Rep 2023; 13:21951. [PMID: 38081944 PMCID: PMC10713573 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-49241-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a dominant gain-of-function mutation in the huntingtin gene, resulting in an elongated polyglutamine repeat in the mutant Huntingtin (mHtt) that mediates aberrant protein interactions. Previous studies implicated the ubiquitin-proteasome system in HD, suggesting that restoring cellular proteostasis might be a key element in suppressing pathology. We applied genetic interaction tests in a Drosophila model to ask whether modulating the levels of deubiquitinase enzymes affect HD pathology. By testing 32 deubiquitinase genes we found that overexpression of Yod1 ameliorated all analyzed phenotypes, including neurodegeneration, motor activity, viability, and longevity. Yod1 did not have a similar effect in amyloid beta overexpressing flies, suggesting that the observed effects might be specific to mHtt. Yod1 overexpression did not alter the number of mHtt aggregates but moderately increased the ratio of larger aggregates. Transcriptome analysis showed that Yod1 suppressed the transcriptional effects of mHtt and restored the expression of genes involved in neuronal plasticity, vesicular transport, antimicrobial defense, and protein synthesis, modifications, and clearance. Furthermore, Yod1 overexpression in HD flies leads to the upregulation of genes involved in transcriptional regulation and synaptic transmission, which might be part of a response mechanism to mHtt-induced stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anita Farkas
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, 6726, Szeged, Hungary
- Doctoral School in Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, 6726, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Nóra Zsindely
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, 6726, Szeged, Hungary
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, 6726, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Gábor Nagy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, 6726, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Levente Kovács
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, 6726, Szeged, Hungary
- Divison of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, 91125, USA
| | - Péter Deák
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, 6726, Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Bodai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, 6726, Szeged, Hungary.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Larsson JNK, Nyström S, Hammarström P. HSP10 as a Chaperone for Neurodegenerative Amyloid Fibrils. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:902600. [PMID: 35769706 PMCID: PMC9234269 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.902600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are associated with accumulated misfolded proteins (MPs). MPs oligomerize and form multiple forms of amyloid fibril polymorphs that dictate fibril propagation and cellular dysfunction. Protein misfolding processes that impair protein homeostasis are implicated in onset and progression of NDs. A wide variety of molecular chaperones safeguard the cell from MP accumulation. A rather overlooked molecular chaperone is HSP10, known as a co-chaperone for HSP60. Due to the ubiquitous presence in human tissues and protein overabundance compared with HSP60, we studied how HSP10 alone influences fibril formation in vitro of Alzheimer’s disease-associated Aβ1–42. At sub-stoichiometric concentrations, eukaryotic HSP10s (human and Drosophila) significantly influenced the fibril formation process and the fibril structure of Aβ1–42, more so than the prokaryotic HSP10 GroES. Similar effects were observed for prion disease-associated prion protein HuPrP90–231. Paradoxically, for a chaperone, low concentrations of HSP10 appeared to promote fibril nucleation by shortened lag-phases, which were chaperone and substrate dependent. Higher concentrations of chaperone while still sub-stoichiometric extended the nucleation and/or the elongation phase. We hypothesized that HSP10 by means of its seven mobile loops provides the chaperone with high avidity binding to amyloid fibril ends. The preserved sequence of the edge of the mobile loop GGIM(V)L (29–33 human numbering) normally dock to the HSP60 apical domain. Interestingly, this segment shows sequence similarity to amyloidogenic core segments of Aβ1–42, GGVVI (37–41), and HuPrP90-231 GGYML (126–130) likely allowing efficient competitive binding to fibrillar conformations of these MPs. Our results propose that HSP10 can function as an important molecular chaperone in human proteostasis in NDs.
Collapse
|
4
|
Jatamansinol from Nardostachys jatamansi (D.Don) DC. Protects Aβ 42-induced Neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's Disease Drosophila Model. Neurotoxicology 2022; 90:62-78. [PMID: 35247505 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2022.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. is an essential plant used in Indian Ayurveda to treat neurological disorders, and it enhances memory. Its active phytochemical(s) responsible for neuroprotection is not yet studied. One of the neurological disorders, namely Alzheimer's disease (AD) causes dementia, is not having pharmacological strategies to effectively prevent the onset of AD, cure or reverse AD progression, and treat cognitive symptoms. Here is an attempt to analyze the neuroprotective effect of jatamansinol isolated from N. jatamansi against Aβ42 protein-induced neurotoxicity using the Aβ42 protein expressed Drosophila Alzheimer's disease (AD) model. Oregon-K (OK) and AD flies were reared on regular or jatamansinol supplemented food and analyzed their lifespan, locomotor activity, learning and memory, eye degeneration, oxidative stress levels, antioxidant activities, cholinesterase activities, Aβ42 protein, and Aβ42 gene expression. Jatamansinol extends the lifespan, improves locomotor activity, enhances learning and memory, and reduces Aβ42 protein levels in AD flies. Jatamansinol boosts the antioxidant enzyme activities, prevents Aβ42 protein-induced oxidative stress, ameliorates eye degeneration, and inhibits cholinesterase activities in the AD model. This study evidences the protective effect of jatamansinol against the Aβ42 protein-induced neurotoxicity in the AD Drosophila model, suggesting its possible therapeutic potential against AD.
Collapse
|
5
|
Devineni AV, Deere JU, Sun B, Axel R. Individual bitter-sensing neurons in Drosophila exhibit both ON and OFF responses that influence synaptic plasticity. Curr Biol 2021; 31:5533-5546.e7. [PMID: 34731675 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The brain generates internal representations that translate sensory stimuli into appropriate behavior. In the taste system, different tastes activate distinct populations of sensory neurons. We investigated the temporal properties of taste responses in Drosophila and discovered that different types of taste sensory neurons show striking differences in their response dynamics. Strong responses to stimulus onset (ON responses) and offset (OFF responses) were observed in bitter-sensing neurons in the labellum, whereas bitter neurons in the leg and other classes of labellar taste neurons showed only an ON response. Individual labellar bitter neurons generate both ON and OFF responses through a cell-intrinsic mechanism that requires canonical bitter receptors. A single receptor complex likely generates both ON and OFF responses to a given bitter ligand. These ON and OFF responses in the periphery are propagated to dopaminergic neurons that mediate aversive learning, and the presence of the OFF response impacts synaptic plasticity when bitter is used as a reinforcement cue. These studies reveal previously unknown features of taste responses that impact neural circuit function and may be important for behavior. Moreover, these studies show that OFF responses can dramatically influence timing-based synaptic plasticity, which is thought to underlie associative learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anita V Devineni
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA.
| | - Julia U Deere
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Bei Sun
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Richard Axel
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Elovsson G, Bergkvist L, Brorsson AC. Exploring Aβ Proteotoxicity and Therapeutic Candidates Using Drosophila melanogaster. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910448. [PMID: 34638786 PMCID: PMC8508956 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease is a widespread and devastating neurological disorder associated with proteotoxic events caused by the misfolding and aggregation of the amyloid-β peptide. To find therapeutic strategies to combat this disease, Drosophila melanogaster has proved to be an excellent model organism that is able to uncover anti-proteotoxic candidates due to its outstanding genetic toolbox and resemblance to human disease genes. In this review, we highlight the use of Drosophila melanogaster to both study the proteotoxicity of the amyloid-β peptide and to screen for drug candidates. Expanding the knowledge of how the etiology of Alzheimer’s disease is related to proteotoxicity and how drugs can be used to block disease progression will hopefully shed further light on the field in the search for disease-modifying treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Greta Elovsson
- Division of Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden;
| | - Liza Bergkvist
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institute, 17164 Solna, Sweden;
| | - Ann-Christin Brorsson
- Division of Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 58183 Linköping, Sweden;
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Behnke JA, Ye C, Setty A, Moberg KH, Zheng JQ. Repetitive mild head trauma induces activity mediated lifelong brain deficits in a novel Drosophila model. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9738. [PMID: 33958652 PMCID: PMC8102574 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89121-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mild head trauma, including concussion, can lead to chronic brain dysfunction and degeneration but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we developed a novel head impact system to investigate the long-term effects of mild head trauma on brain structure and function, as well as the underlying mechanisms in Drosophila melanogaster. We find that Drosophila subjected to repetitive head impacts develop long-term deficits, including impaired startle-induced climbing, progressive brain degeneration, and shortened lifespan, all of which are substantially exacerbated in female flies. Interestingly, head impacts elicit an elevation in neuronal activity and its acute suppression abrogates the detrimental effects in female flies. Together, our findings validate Drosophila as a suitable model system for investigating the long-term effects of mild head trauma, suggest an increased vulnerability to brain injury in female flies, and indicate that early altered neuronal excitability may be a key mechanism linking mild brain trauma to chronic degeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph A Behnke
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Changtian Ye
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Aayush Setty
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Kenneth H Moberg
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - James Q Zheng
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Limegrover CS, LeVine H, Izzo NJ, Yurko R, Mozzoni K, Rehak C, Sadlek K, Safferstein H, Catalano SM. Alzheimer's protection effect of A673T mutation may be driven by lower Aβ oligomer binding affinity. J Neurochem 2021; 157:1316-1330. [PMID: 33025581 PMCID: PMC8246829 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Several mutations conferring protection against Alzheimer's disease (AD) have been described, none as profound as the A673T mutation, where carriers are four times less likely to get AD compared to noncarriers. This mutation results in reduced amyloid beta (Aβ) protein production in vitro and lower lifetime Aβ concentration in carriers. Better understanding of the protective mechanisms of the mutation may provide important insights into AD pathophysiology and identify productive therapeutic intervention strategies for disease modification. Aβ(1-42) protein forms oligomers that bind saturably to a single receptor site on neuronal synapses, initiating the downstream toxicities observed in AD. Decreased formation, toxicity, or stability of soluble Aβ oligomers, or reduction of synaptic binding of these oligomers, may combine with overall lower Aβ concentration to underlie A673T's disease protecting mechanism. To investigate these possibilities, we compared the formation rate of soluble oligomers made from Icelandic A673T mutant and wild type (wt) Aβ(1-42) synthetic protein, the amount and intensity of oligomer bound to mature primary rat hippocampal/cortical neuronal synapses, and the potency of bound oligomers to impact trafficking rate in neurons in vitro using a physiologically relevant oligomer preparation method. At equal protein concentrations, mutant protein forms approximately 50% or fewer oligomers of high molecular weight (>50 kDa) compared to wt protein. Mutant oligomers are twice as potent at altering the cellular vesicle trafficking rate as wt at equivalent concentrations, however, mutant oligomers have a >4-fold lower binding affinity to synaptic receptors (Kd = 1,950 vs. 442 nM). The net effect of these differences is a lower overall toxicity at a given concentration. This study demonstrates for the first time that mutant A673T Aβ oligomers prepared with this method have fundamentally different assembly characteristics and biological impact from wt protein and indicates that its disease protecting mechanism may result primarily from the mutant protein's much lower binding affinity to synaptic receptors. This suggests that therapeutics that effectively reduce oligomer binding to synapses in the brain may be beneficial in AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Harry LeVine
- Sanders‐Brown Center on AgingUniversity of KentuckyLexingtonKYUSA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Nikookar H, Haddadi M, Haghi M, Masoudi R. DNT1 Downregulation and Increased Ethanol Sensitivity in Transgenic Drosophila Models of Alzheimer's Disease. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2021; 94:104355. [PMID: 33550108 DOI: 10.1016/j.archger.2021.104355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Two major pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau. Aggregation of amyloid-β (Aβ) is considered as the primary insult in AD. However, failure in treatments based on targetingAβ without considering the pathologic tau and close correlation between pathological tau and cognitive decline highlighted the crucial role of tau in AD. Loss of synaptic plasticity and cognitive decline, partly due to decrease in Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), are other hallmarks of AD. Aβ and tau downregulate BDNF at both transcriptional and translational levels. The aim of this research was to study the expression levels of Drosophila Neuroteophin 1 (DNT1), as an orthologue of BDNF, in flies expressing Aβ42 or tauR406W. Levels of DNT1 were determined using quantitative real time PCR. Behavioral and Biochemical investigations were also performed in parallel. Our results showed that there is a significant decrease in the levels of DNT1 expression in Aβ42 or tauR406W expressing flies. Interestingly, a significant increase was observed in sensitivity to ethanol in both transgenic flies. Rise in Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) levels was also detected. We concluded that both Aβ and pathological tau exert their toxic effect on DNT1 expression, ROS production, and response to ethanol, independently. Interestingly, pathological tau showed higher impact on the ROS production compared to Aβ. It seems that Aβ42 and tauR406W transgenic flies are proper models to investigate the interplay between BDNF and oxidative stress, and also to assess the mechanism underlying behavioral response to ethanol.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hoda Nikookar
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Haddadi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran
| | - Mehrnaz Haghi
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Raheleh Masoudi
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Sandberg A, Ling H, Gearing M, Dombroski B, Cantwell L, R'Bibo L, Levey A, Schellenberg GD, Hardy J, Wood N, Fernius J, Nyström S, Svensson S, Thor S, Hammarström P, Revesz T, Mok KY. Fibrillation and molecular characteristics are coherent with clinical and pathological features of 4-repeat tauopathy caused by MAPT variant G273R. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 146:105079. [PMID: 32961270 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Microtubule Associated Protein Tau (MAPT) forms proteopathic aggregates in several diseases. The G273R tau mutation, located in the first repeat region, was found by exome sequencing in a patient who presented with dementia and parkinsonism. We herein return to pathological examination which demonstrated tau immunoreactivity in neurons and glia consistent of mixed progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and corticobasal degeneration (CBD) features. To rationalize the pathological findings, we used molecular biophysics to characterize the mutation in more detail in vitro and in Drosophila. The G273R mutation increases the aggregation propensity of 4-repeat (4R) tau and alters the tau binding affinity towards microtubules (MTs) and F-actin. Tau aggregates in PSP and CBD are predominantly 4R tau. Our data suggest that the G273R mutation induces a shift in pool of 4R tau by lower F-actin affinity, alters the conformation of MT bound 4R tau, while increasing chaperoning of 3R tau by binding stronger to F-actin. The mutation augmented fibrillation of 4R tau initiation in vitro and in glial cells in Drosophila and showed preferential seeding of 4R tau in vitro suggestively causing a late onset 4R tauopathy reminiscent of PSP and CBD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Sandberg
- Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Helen Ling
- Queen Square Brain Bank for Neurological Disorders, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Marla Gearing
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Goizueta Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Neurology and Goizueta Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Beth Dombroski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Laura Cantwell
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Lea R'Bibo
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Allan Levey
- Department of Neurology and Goizueta Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Gerard D Schellenberg
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - John Hardy
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL and Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK; Institute for Advanced Study, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Nicholas Wood
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Josefin Fernius
- Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Sofie Nyström
- Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Samuel Svensson
- Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden; CBD Solutions, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Stefan Thor
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072, Australia
| | - Per Hammarström
- Department of Physics Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
| | - Tamas Revesz
- Queen Square Brain Bank for Neurological Disorders, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Kin Y Mok
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL and Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK; Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Kim T, Song B, Lee IS. Drosophila Glia: Models for Human Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E4859. [PMID: 32660023 PMCID: PMC7402321 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21144859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cells are key players in the proper formation and maintenance of the nervous system, thus contributing to neuronal health and disease in humans. However, little is known about the molecular pathways that govern glia-neuron communications in the diseased brain. Drosophila provides a useful in vivo model to explore the conserved molecular details of glial cell biology and their contributions to brain function and disease susceptibility. Herein, we review recent studies that explore glial functions in normal neuronal development, along with Drosophila models that seek to identify the pathological implications of glial defects in the context of various central nervous system disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Im-Soon Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for CHANS, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea; (T.K.); (B.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Serum amyloid P component promotes formation of distinct aggregated lysozyme morphologies and reduces toxicity in Drosophila flies expressing F57I lysozyme. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227227. [PMID: 31978114 PMCID: PMC6980568 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Many conflicting reports about the involvement of serum amyloid P component (SAP) in amyloid diseases have been presented over the years; SAP is known to be a universal component of amyloid aggregates but it has been suggested that it can both induce and suppress amyloid formation. By using our Drosophila model of systemic lysozyme amyloidosis, SAP has previously been shown to reduce the toxicity induced by the expression of the disease-associated lysozyme variant, F57I, in the Drosophila central nervous system. This study further investigates the involvement of SAP in modulating lysozyme toxicity using histochemistry and spectral analyses on the double transgenic WT and F57I lysozyme flies to probe; i) formation of aggregates, ii) morphological differences of the aggregated lysozyme species formed in the presence or absence of SAP, iii) location of lysozyme and iv) co-localisation of lysozyme and SAP in the fly brain. We found that SAP can counteract the toxicity (measured by the reduction in the median survival time) induced by F57I lysozyme by converting toxic F57I species into less toxic amyloid-like structures, as reflected by the spectral changes that p-FTAA undergoes when bound to lysozyme deposits in F57I-F57I-SAP flies as compared to F57I-F57I flies. Indeed, when SAP was introduced to in vitro lysozyme fibril formation, the endpoint fibrils had enhanced ThT fluorescence intensity as compared to lysozyme fibrils alone. This suggests that a general mechanism for SAP's role in amyloid diseases may be to promote the formation of stable, amyloid-like fibrils, thus decreasing the impact of toxic species formed along the aggregation pathway.
Collapse
|
13
|
Jonson M, Nyström S, Sandberg A, Carlback M, Michno W, Hanrieder J, Starkenberg A, Peter K, Nilsson R, Thor S, Hammarström P. Amyloid fibril polymorphism and cell-specific toxicity in vivo. Amyloid 2019; 26:136-137. [PMID: 31343327 DOI: 10.1080/13506129.2019.1582488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Jonson
- a IFM-Department of Chemistry, Linköping University , Linköping , Sweden
| | - Sofie Nyström
- a IFM-Department of Chemistry, Linköping University , Linköping , Sweden
| | - Alexander Sandberg
- a IFM-Department of Chemistry, Linköping University , Linköping , Sweden
| | - Marcus Carlback
- a IFM-Department of Chemistry, Linköping University , Linköping , Sweden
| | - Wojciech Michno
- b Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg , Mölndal , Sweden
| | - Jörg Hanrieder
- b Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg , Mölndal , Sweden.,c Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, University College London , London , UK
| | - Annika Starkenberg
- d Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University , Linköping , Sweden
| | | | - R Nilsson
- a IFM-Department of Chemistry, Linköping University , Linköping , Sweden
| | - Stefan Thor
- d Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University , Linköping , Sweden
| | - Per Hammarström
- a IFM-Department of Chemistry, Linköping University , Linköping , Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Mpambani F, Åslund AK, Lerouge F, Nyström S, Reitan N, Huuse EM, Widerøe M, Chaput F, Monnereau C, Andraud C, Lecouvey M, Handrick S, Prokop S, Heppner FL, Nilsson P, Hammarström P, Lindgren M, Parola S. Two-Photon Fluorescence and Magnetic Resonance Specific Imaging of Aβ Amyloid Using Hybrid Nano-GdF3 Contrast Media. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2018; 1:462-472. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.8b00191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francis Mpambani
- Laboratoire de Chimie ENS Lyon, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5182, 46 allée d’Italie, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Andreas K.O. Åslund
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
- IFM-kemi, Linköpings Universitet, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Frederic Lerouge
- Laboratoire de Chimie ENS Lyon, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5182, 46 allée d’Italie, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Sofie Nyström
- IFM-kemi, Linköpings Universitet, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Nina Reitan
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Else Marie Huuse
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, NTNU, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Marius Widerøe
- Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, NTNU, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Frederic Chaput
- Laboratoire de Chimie ENS Lyon, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5182, 46 allée d’Italie, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Cyrille Monnereau
- Laboratoire de Chimie ENS Lyon, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5182, 46 allée d’Italie, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Chantal Andraud
- Laboratoire de Chimie ENS Lyon, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5182, 46 allée d’Italie, 69364 Lyon, France
| | - Marc Lecouvey
- Laboratoire CSPBAT, UMR 7244, CNRS, Université Paris 13, 74 Rue Marcel Cachin, 93017 Bobigny, France
| | - Susann Handrick
- Department of Neuropathology, Charité−Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, Virchowweg 21, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Prokop
- Department of Neuropathology, Charité−Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, Virchowweg 21, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Frank L. Heppner
- Department of Neuropathology, Charité−Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, Virchowweg 21, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Nilsson
- IFM-kemi, Linköpings Universitet, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | | | - Mikael Lindgren
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Stephane Parola
- Laboratoire de Chimie ENS Lyon, Université de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5182, 46 allée d’Italie, 69364 Lyon, France
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Tsuda L, Omata Y, Yamasaki Y, Minami R, Lim YM. Pyroglutamate-amyloid-β peptide expression in Drosophila leads to caspase-dependent and endoplasmic reticulum stress-related progressive neurodegeneration. Hum Mol Genet 2018; 26:4642-4656. [PMID: 28973191 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder among the elderly. During the progression of AD, massive neuronal degeneration occurs in the late stage of the disease; however, the molecular mechanisms responsible for this neuronal loss remain unknown. AβpE3-42 (an N-terminal-truncated amyloid-β peptide that begins with pyroglutamate at the third position) is produced during late-stage AD. It also aggregates more rapidly in vitro and exhibits greater toxicity in neurons than full-length Aβ1-42. In the present study, we established a Drosophila melanogaster model that expresses Aβ3-42E3Q, which effectively produces AβpE3-42, and investigated the function of AβpE3-42 using the photoreceptor neurons of Drosophila. AβpE3-42 induced caspase-dependent apoptosis and caused progressive degeneration in photoreceptor neurons. Mutations in ER stress response genes or the administration of an inhibitor of the ER stress response markedly suppressed the degeneration phenotype, suggesting that the ER stress response plays an important role in neurodegeneration caused by AβpE3-42. We also confirmed that human Tau-dependent apoptotic induction was strongly enhanced by AβpE3-42. Thus, AβpE3-42 expression system in the fly may be a promising new tool for studying late-onset neurodegeneration in AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leo Tsuda
- Center for Development of Advanced Medicine for Dementia (CAMD), National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology (NCGG), Obu, Aichi 474-8511, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Omata
- Center for Development of Advanced Medicine for Dementia (CAMD), National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology (NCGG), Obu, Aichi 474-8511, Japan
| | - Yasutoyo Yamasaki
- Center for Development of Advanced Medicine for Dementia (CAMD), National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology (NCGG), Obu, Aichi 474-8511, Japan
| | - Ryunosuke Minami
- Center for Development of Advanced Medicine for Dementia (CAMD), National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology (NCGG), Obu, Aichi 474-8511, Japan
| | - Young-Mi Lim
- Center for Development of Advanced Medicine for Dementia (CAMD), National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology (NCGG), Obu, Aichi 474-8511, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Jonson M, Nyström S, Sandberg A, Carlback M, Michno W, Hanrieder J, Starkenberg A, Nilsson KPR, Thor S, Hammarström P. Aggregated Aβ1-42 Is Selectively Toxic for Neurons, Whereas Glial Cells Produce Mature Fibrils with Low Toxicity in Drosophila. Cell Chem Biol 2018; 25:595-610.e5. [PMID: 29657084 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2018.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The basis for selective vulnerability of certain cell types for misfolded proteins (MPs) in neurodegenerative diseases is largely unknown. This knowledge is crucial for understanding disease progression in relation to MPs spreading in the CNS. We assessed this issue in Drosophila by cell-specific expression of human Aβ1-42 associated with Alzheimer's disease. Expression of Aβ1-42 in various neurons resulted in concentration-dependent severe neurodegenerative phenotypes, and intraneuronal ring-tangle-like aggregates with immature fibril properties when analyzed by aggregate-specific ligands. Unexpectedly, expression of Aβ1-42 from a pan-glial driver produced a mild phenotype despite massive brain load of Aβ1-42 aggregates, even higher than in the strongest neuronal driver. Glial cells formed more mature fibrous aggregates, morphologically distinct from aggregates found in neurons, and was mainly extracellular. Our findings implicate that Aβ1-42 cytotoxicity is both cell and aggregate morphotype dependent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Jonson
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping SE-581 83, Sweden
| | - Sofie Nyström
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping SE-581 83, Sweden
| | - Alexander Sandberg
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping SE-581 83, Sweden
| | - Marcus Carlback
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping SE-581 83, Sweden
| | - Wojciech Michno
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 431 80 Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Jörg Hanrieder
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 431 80 Mölndal, Sweden; Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London W1C3BG, UK
| | - Annika Starkenberg
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping SE-581 85, Sweden
| | - K Peter R Nilsson
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping SE-581 83, Sweden
| | - Stefan Thor
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping SE-581 85, Sweden
| | - Per Hammarström
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping SE-581 83, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Fändrich M, Nyström S, Nilsson KPR, Böckmann A, LeVine H, Hammarström P. Amyloid fibril polymorphism: a challenge for molecular imaging and therapy. J Intern Med 2018; 283:218-237. [PMID: 29360284 PMCID: PMC5820168 DOI: 10.1111/joim.12732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of misfolded proteins (MPs), both unique and common, for different diseases is central for many chronic degenerative diseases. In certain patients, MP accumulation is systemic (e.g. TTR amyloid), and in others, this is localized to a specific cell type (e.g. Alzheimer's disease). In neurodegenerative diseases, NDs, it is noticeable that the accumulation of MP progressively spreads throughout the nervous system. Our main hypothesis of this article is that MPs are not only markers but also active carriers of pathogenicity. Here, we discuss studies from comprehensive molecular approaches aimed at understanding MP conformational variations (polymorphism) and their bearing on spreading of MPs, MP toxicity, as well as MP targeting in imaging and therapy. Neurodegenerative disease (ND) represents a major and growing societal challenge, with millions of people worldwide suffering from Alzheimer's or Parkinson's diseases alone. For all NDs, current treatment is palliative without addressing the primary cause and is not curative. Over recent years, particularly the shape-shifting properties of misfolded proteins and their spreading pathways have been intensively researched. The difficulty in addressing ND has prompted most major pharma companies to severely downsize their nervous system disorder research. Increased academic research is pivotal for filling this void and to translate basic research into tools for medical professionals. Recent discoveries of targeting drug design against MPs and improved model systems to study structure, pathology spreading and toxicity strongly encourage future studies along these lines to provide an opportunity for selective imaging, prognostic diagnosis and therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Fändrich
- Institute of Protein Biochemistry, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Sofie Nyström
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, division of Chemistry, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - K. Peter R. Nilsson
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, division of Chemistry, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Anja Böckmann
- Institut de Biologie et Chimie des Protéines, Bases Moléculaires et Structurales des Systèmes Infectieux, Labex Ecofect, UMR 5086 CNRS, Université de Lyon, 7 passage du Vercors, 69367 Lyon, France
| | - Harry LeVine
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Per Hammarström
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, division of Chemistry, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Moore BD, Martin J, de Mena L, Sanchez J, Cruz PE, Ceballos-Diaz C, Ladd TB, Ran Y, Levites Y, Kukar TL, Kurian JJ, McKenna R, Koo EH, Borchelt DR, Janus C, Rincon-Limas D, Fernandez-Funez P, Golde TE. Short Aβ peptides attenuate Aβ42 toxicity in vivo. J Exp Med 2017; 215:283-301. [PMID: 29208777 PMCID: PMC5748850 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20170600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Data demonstrate that short amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides are not toxic in vivo and can partially block toxicity associated with Aβ42 accumulation. Moore et al. further validate the use of γ-secretase modulators that lower Aβ42 and increase short Aβs as potential Alzheimer’s disease therapeutics. Processing of amyloid-β (Aβ) precursor protein (APP) by γ-secretase produces multiple species of Aβ: Aβ40, short Aβ peptides (Aβ37–39), and longer Aβ peptides (Aβ42–43). γ-Secretase modulators, a class of Alzheimer’s disease therapeutics, reduce production of the pathogenic Aβ42 but increase the relative abundance of short Aβ peptides. To evaluate the pathological relevance of these peptides, we expressed Aβ36–40 and Aβ42–43 in Drosophila melanogaster to evaluate inherent toxicity and potential modulatory effects on Aβ42 toxicity. In contrast to Aβ42, the short Aβ peptides were not toxic and, when coexpressed with Aβ42, were protective in a dose-dependent fashion. In parallel, we explored the effects of recombinant adeno-associated virus–mediated expression of Aβ38 and Aβ40 in mice. When expressed in nontransgenic mice at levels sufficient to drive Aβ42 deposition, Aβ38 and Aβ40 did not deposit or cause behavioral alterations. These studies indicate that treatments that lower Aβ42 by raising the levels of short Aβ peptides could attenuate the toxic effects of Aβ42.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brenda D Moore
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Jason Martin
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Lorena de Mena
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Jonatan Sanchez
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Pedro E Cruz
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Carolina Ceballos-Diaz
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Thomas B Ladd
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Yong Ran
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Yona Levites
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Thomas L Kukar
- Department of Pharmacology and Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Justin J Kurian
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Robert McKenna
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Edward H Koo
- Department of Neuroscience, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA
| | - David R Borchelt
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Christopher Janus
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Diego Rincon-Limas
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.,Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| | - Pedro Fernandez-Funez
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota School of Medicine, Duluth, MN
| | - Todd E Golde
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL .,McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Fernius J, Starkenberg A, Thor S. Bar-coding neurodegeneration: identifying subcellular effects of human neurodegenerative disease proteins using Drosophila leg neurons. Dis Model Mech 2017; 10:1027-1038. [PMID: 28615189 PMCID: PMC5560063 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.029637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic, biochemical and histological studies have identified a number of different proteins as key drivers of human neurodegenerative diseases. Although different proteins are typically involved in different diseases, there is also considerable overlap. Addressing disease protein dysfunction in an in vivo neuronal context is often time consuming and requires labor-intensive analysis of transgenic models. To facilitate the rapid, cellular analysis of disease protein dysfunction, we have developed a fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) adult leg neuron assay. We tested the robustness of 41 transgenic fluorescent reporters and identified a number that were readily detected in the legs and could report on different cellular events. To test these reporters, we expressed a number of human proteins involved in neurodegenerative disease, in both their mutated and wild-type versions, to address the effects on reporter expression and localization. We observed strikingly different effects of the different disease proteins upon the various reporters with, for example, Aβ1-42 being highly neurotoxic, tau, parkin and HTT128Q affecting mitochondrial distribution, integrity or both, and Aβ1-42, tau, HTT128Q and ATX182Q affecting the F-actin network. This study provides proof of concept for using the Drosophila adult leg for inexpensive and rapid analysis of cellular effects of neurodegenerative disease proteins in mature neurons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josefin Fernius
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, SE-581 85 Linkoping, Sweden
| | - Annika Starkenberg
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, SE-581 85 Linkoping, Sweden
| | - Stefan Thor
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, SE-581 85 Linkoping, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Fernius J, Starkenberg A, Pokrzywa M, Thor S. Human TTBK1, TTBK2 and MARK1 kinase toxicity in Drosophila melanogaster is exacerbated by co-expression of human Tau. Biol Open 2017; 6:1013-1023. [PMID: 28711868 PMCID: PMC5550906 DOI: 10.1242/bio.022749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Tau protein is involved in numerous human neurodegenerative diseases, and Tau hyper-phosphorylation has been linked to Tau aggregation and toxicity. Previous studies have addressed toxicity and phospho-biology of human Tau (hTau) in Drosophila melanogaster. However, hTau transgenes have most often been randomly inserted in the genome, thus making it difficult to compare between different hTau isoforms and phospho-mutants. In addition, many studies have expressed hTau also in mitotic cells, causing non-physiological toxic effects. Here, we overcome these confounds by integrating UAS-hTau isoform transgenes into specific genomic loci, and express hTau post-mitotically in the Drosophila nervous system. Lifespan and locomotor analyses show that all six of the hTau isoforms elicit similar toxicity in flies, although hTau2N3R showed somewhat elevated toxicity. To determine if Tau phosphorylation is responsible for toxicity, we analyzed the effects of co-expressing hTau isoforms together with Tau-kinases, focusing on TTBK1, TTBK2 and MARK1. We observed toxicity when expressing each of the three kinases alone, or in combination. Kinase toxicity was enhanced by hTau co-expression, with strongest co-toxicity for TTBK1. Mutagenesis and phosphorylation analysis indicates that hTau-MARK1 combinatorial toxicity may be due to direct phosphorylation of hTau, while hTau-TTBK1/2 combinatorial toxicity may result from independent toxicity mechanisms. Summary: Tau hyper-phosphorylation has been linked to toxicity, but the Tau isoforms, kinases and residues remain unclear. Using the Drosophila model, we find evidence for involvement of TTBK and MARK kinases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josefin Fernius
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, Linkoping SE-581 85, Sweden
| | - Annika Starkenberg
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, Linkoping SE-581 85, Sweden
| | - Malgorzata Pokrzywa
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, Linkoping SE-581 85, Sweden
| | - Stefan Thor
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, Linkoping SE-581 85, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Sofola-Adesakin O, Khericha M, Snoeren I, Tsuda L, Partridge L. pGluAβ increases accumulation of Aβ in vivo and exacerbates its toxicity. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2016; 4:109. [PMID: 27717375 PMCID: PMC5055666 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-016-0380-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Several species of β-amyloid peptides (Aβ) exist as a result of differential cleavage from amyloid precursor protein (APP) to yield various C-terminal Aβ peptides. Several N-terminal modified Aβ peptides have also been identified in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) brains, the most common of which is pyroglutamate-modified Aβ (AβpE3-42). AβpE3-42 peptide has an increased propensity to aggregate, appears to accumulate in the brain before the appearance of clinical symptoms of AD, and precedes Aβ1-42 deposition. Moreover, in vitro studies have shown that AβpE3-42 can act as a seed for full length Aβ1-42. In this study, we characterized the Drosophila model of AβpE3-42 toxicity by expressing the peptide in specific sets of neurons using the GAL4-UAS system, and measuring different phenotypic outcomes. We found that AβpE3-42 peptide had an increased propensity to aggregate. Expression of AβpE3-42 in the neurons of adult flies led to behavioural dysfunction and shortened lifespan. Expression of AβpE3-42 constitutively in the eyes led to disorganised ommatidia, and activation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathway. The eye disruption was almost completely rescued by co-expressing a candidate Aβ degrading enzyme, neprilysin2. Furthermore, we found that neprilysin2 was capable of degrading AβpE3-42. Also, we tested the seeding hypothesis for AβpE3-42 in vivo, and measured its effect on Aβ1-42 levels. We found that Aβ1-42 levels were significantly increased when Aβ1-42 and AβpE3-42 peptides were co-expressed. Furthermore, we found that AβpE3-42 enhanced Aβ1-42 toxicity in vivo. Our findings implicate AβpE3-42 as an important source of toxicity in AD, and suggest that its specific degradation could be therapeutic.
Collapse
|
22
|
Kimura A, Hata S, Suzuki T. Alternative Selection of β-Site APP-Cleaving Enzyme 1 (BACE1) Cleavage Sites in Amyloid β-Protein Precursor (APP) Harboring Protective and Pathogenic Mutations within the Aβ Sequence. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:24041-24053. [PMID: 27687728 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.744722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
β-Site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) cleaves amyloid β-protein precursor (APP) at the bond between Met671 and Asp672 (β-site) to generate the carboxyl-terminal fragment (CTFβ/C99). BACE1 also cleaves APP at another bond between Thr681 and Gln682 (β'-site), yielding CTFβ'/C89. Cleavage of CTFβ/C99 by γ-secretase generates Aβ(1-XX), whereas cleavage of CTFβ'/C89 generates Aβ(11-XX). Thus, β'-site cleavage by BACE1 is amyloidolytic rather than amyloidogenic. β' cleavage of mouse APP is more common than the corresponding cleavage of human APP. We found that the H684R substitution within human Aβ, which replaces the histidine in the human protein with the arginine found at the corresponding position in mouse, facilitated β' cleavage irrespective of the species origin of BACE1, thereby significantly increasing the level of Aβ(11-XX) and decreasing the level of Aβ(1-XX). Thus, amino acid substitutions within the Aβ sequence influenced the selectivity of alternative β- or β'-site cleavage of APP by BACE1. In familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD), the APP gene harbors pathogenic variations such as the Swedish (K670N/M671L), Leuven (E682K), and A673V mutations, all of which decrease Aβ(11-40) generation, whereas the protective Icelandic mutation (A673T) increases generation of Aβ(11-40). Thus, A673T promotes β' cleavage of APP and protects subjects against AD. In addition, CTFβ/C99 was cleaved by excess BACE1 activity to generate CTFβ'/C89, followed by Aβ(11-40), even if APP harbored pathogenic mutations. The resultant Aβ(11-40) was more metabolically labile in vivo than Aβ(1-40). Our analysis suggests that some FAD mutations in APP are amyloidogenic and/or amyloidolytic via selection of alternative BACE1 cleavage sites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ayano Kimura
- From the Laboratory of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12-Nishi 6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Saori Hata
- From the Laboratory of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12-Nishi 6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Toshiharu Suzuki
- From the Laboratory of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University, Kita 12-Nishi 6, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Bergkvist L, Sandin L, Kågedal K, Brorsson AC. AβPP processing results in greater toxicity per amount of Aβ1-42 than individually expressed and secreted Aβ1-42 in Drosophila melanogaster. Biol Open 2016; 5:1030-9. [PMID: 27387531 PMCID: PMC5004604 DOI: 10.1242/bio.017194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The aggregation of the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide into fibrillar deposits has long been considered the key neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Aβ peptides are generated from proteolytic processing of the transmembrane Aβ precursor protein (AβPP) via sequential proteolysis through the β-secretase activity of β-site AβPP-cleaving enzyme (BACE1) and by the intramembranous enzyme γ-secretase. For over a decade, Drosophila melanogaster has been used as a model organism to study AD, and two different approaches have been developed to investigate the toxicity caused by AD-associated gene products in vivo. In one model, the Aβ peptide is directly over-expressed fused to a signal peptide, allowing secretion of the peptide into the extracellular space. In the other model, human AβPP is co-expressed with human BACE1, resulting in production of the Aβ peptide through the processing of AβPP by BACE1 and by endogenous fly γ-secretase. Here, we performed a parallel study of flies that expressed the Aβ1-42 peptide alone or that co-expressed AβPP and BACE1. Toxic effects (assessed by eye phenotype, longevity and locomotor assays) and levels of the Aβ1-42, Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-38 peptides were examined. Our data reveal that the toxic effect per amount of detected Aβ1-42 peptide was higher in the flies co-expressing AβPP and BACE1 than in the Aβ1-42-expressing flies, and that the co-existence of Aβ1-42 and Aβ1-40 in the flies co-expressing AβPP and BACE1 could be of significant importance to the neurotoxic effect detected in these flies. Thus, the toxicity detected in these two fly models seems to have different modes of action and is highly dependent on how and where the peptide is generated rather than on the actual level of the Aβ1-42 peptide in the flies. This is important knowledge that needs to be taken into consideration when using Drosophila models to investigate disease mechanisms or therapeutic strategies in AD research. Summary: In Drosophila, the proteotoxic effect of Aβ1-42 is highly dependent on how and where the peptide is generated, rather than on the peptide level in the flies, with implications for Alzheimer's disease research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liza Bergkvist
- Division of Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping 58183, Sweden
| | - Linnea Sandin
- Division of Cell Biology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping 58183, Sweden
| | - Katarina Kågedal
- Division of Cell Biology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping 58183, Sweden
| | - Ann-Christin Brorsson
- Division of Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping 58183, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Helmfors L, Bergkvist L, Brorsson AC. Serum Amyloid P Component Ameliorates Neurological Damage Caused by Expressing a Lysozyme Variant in the Central Nervous System of Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0159294. [PMID: 27428539 PMCID: PMC4948765 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysozyme amyloidosis is a hereditary disease in which mutations in the gene coding for lysozyme leads to misfolding and consequently accumulation of amyloid material. To improve understanding of the processes involved we expressed human wild type (WT) lysozyme and the disease-associated variant F57I in the central nervous system (CNS) of a Drosophila melanogaster model of lysozyme amyloidosis, with and without co-expression of serum amyloid p component (SAP). SAP is known to be a universal constituent of amyloid deposits and to associate with lysozyme fibrils. There are clear indications that SAP may play an important role in lysozyme amyloidosis, which requires further elucidation. We found that flies expressing the amyloidogenic variant F57I in the CNS have a shorter lifespan than flies expressing WT lysozyme. We also identified apoptotic cells in the brains of F57I flies demonstrating that the flies' neurological functions are impaired when F57I is expressed in the nerve cells. However, co-expression of SAP in the CNS prevented cell death and restored the F57I flies' lifespan. Thus, SAP has the apparent ability to protect nerve cells from damage caused by F57I. Furthermore, it was found that co-expression of SAP prevented accumulation of insoluble forms of lysozyme in both WT- and F57I-expressing flies. Our findings suggest that the F57I mutation affects the aggregation process of lysozyme resulting in the formation of cytotoxic species and that SAP is able to prevent cell death in the F57I flies by preventing accumulation of toxic F57I structures.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Amyloidosis/genetics
- Amyloidosis/metabolism
- Amyloidosis/pathology
- Animals
- Animals, Genetically Modified
- Apoptosis
- Central Nervous System/metabolism
- Central Nervous System/pathology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Drosophila melanogaster/genetics
- Drosophila melanogaster/metabolism
- Gene Expression
- Humans
- Longevity/genetics
- Muramidase/genetics
- Muramidase/metabolism
- Mutation
- Neurons/metabolism
- Neurons/pathology
- Plaque, Amyloid/genetics
- Plaque, Amyloid/metabolism
- Plaque, Amyloid/pathology
- Plaque, Amyloid/prevention & control
- Protective Factors
- Protein Aggregation, Pathological/genetics
- Protein Aggregation, Pathological/metabolism
- Protein Aggregation, Pathological/pathology
- Protein Aggregation, Pathological/prevention & control
- Serum Amyloid P-Component/genetics
- Serum Amyloid P-Component/metabolism
- Transgenes
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda Helmfors
- Division of Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Liza Bergkvist
- Division of Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Ann-Christin Brorsson
- Division of Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Rosen RF, Tomidokoro Y, Farberg AS, Dooyema J, Ciliax B, Preuss TM, Neubert TA, Ghiso JA, LeVine H, Walker LC. Comparative pathobiology of β-amyloid and the unique susceptibility of humans to Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2016; 44:185-196. [PMID: 27318146 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The misfolding and accumulation of the protein fragment β-amyloid (Aβ) is an early and essential event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Despite close biological similarities among primates, humans appear to be uniquely susceptible to the profound neurodegeneration and dementia that characterize AD, even though nonhuman primates deposit copious Aβ in senile plaques and cerebral amyloid-β angiopathy as they grow old. Because the amino acid sequence of Aβ is identical in all primates studied to date, we asked whether differences in the properties of aggregated Aβ might underlie the vulnerability of humans and the resistance of other primates to AD. In a comparison of aged squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and humans with AD, immunochemical and mass spectrometric analyses indicate that the populations of Aβ fragments are largely similar in the 2 species. In addition, Aβ-rich brain extracts from the brains of aged squirrel monkeys and AD patients similarly seed the deposition of Aβ in a transgenic mouse model. However, the epitope exposure of aggregated Aβ differs in sodium dodecyl sulfate-stable oligomeric Aβ from the 2 species. In addition, the high-affinity binding of (3)H Pittsburgh Compound B to Aβ is significantly diminished in tissue extracts from squirrel monkeys compared with AD patients. These findings support the hypothesis that differences in the pathobiology of aggregated Aβ among primates are linked to post-translational attributes of the misfolded protein, such as molecular conformation and/or the involvement of species-specific cofactors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca F Rosen
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | | | - Aaron S Farberg
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jeromy Dooyema
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Brian Ciliax
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Todd M Preuss
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Thomas A Neubert
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jorge A Ghiso
- Department of Pathology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Harry LeVine
- Department of Molecular & Cellular Biochemistry, Center on Aging, Center for Structural Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Lary C Walker
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Helmfors L, Boman A, Civitelli L, Nath S, Sandin L, Janefjord C, McCann H, Zetterberg H, Blennow K, Halliday G, Brorsson AC, Kågedal K. Protective properties of lysozyme on β-amyloid pathology: implications for Alzheimer disease. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 83:122-33. [PMID: 26334479 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2015] [Revised: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The hallmarks of Alzheimer disease are amyloid-β plaques and neurofibrillary tangles accompanied by signs of neuroinflammation. Lysozyme is a major player in the innate immune system and has recently been shown to prevent the aggregation of amyloid-β1-40 in vitro. In this study we found that patients with Alzheimer disease have increased lysozyme levels in the cerebrospinal fluid and lysozyme co-localized with amyloid-β in plaques. In Drosophila neuronal co-expression of lysozyme and amyloid-β1-42 reduced the formation of soluble and insoluble amyloid-β species, prolonged survival and improved the activity of amyloid-β1-42 transgenic flies. This suggests that lysozyme levels rise in Alzheimer disease as a compensatory response to amyloid-β increases and aggregation. In support of this, in vitro aggregation assays revealed that lysozyme associates with amyloid-β1-42 and alters its aggregation pathway to counteract the formation of toxic amyloid-β species. Overall, these studies establish a protective role for lysozyme against amyloid-β associated toxicities and identify increased lysozyme in patients with Alzheimer disease. Therefore, lysozyme has potential as a new biomarker as well as a therapeutic target for Alzheimer disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linda Helmfors
- Division of Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Andrea Boman
- Experimental Pathology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Livia Civitelli
- Experimental Pathology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Sangeeta Nath
- Experimental Pathology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Linnea Sandin
- Experimental Pathology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Camilla Janefjord
- Experimental Pathology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Heather McCann
- Neuroscience Research Australia and University of New South Wales, Randwick New South Wales 2031, Australia
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, 431 30 Mölndal, Sweden; UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Kaj Blennow
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, 431 30 Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Glenda Halliday
- Neuroscience Research Australia and University of New South Wales, Randwick New South Wales 2031, Australia
| | - Ann-Christin Brorsson
- Division of Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden.
| | - Katarina Kågedal
- Experimental Pathology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, 581 85 Linköping, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|