Diversity of Bartonella and Rickettsia spp. in Bats and Their Blood-Feeding Ectoparasites from South Africa and Swaziland

Bartonella spp. in bats from the Brazilian Amazon Forest

Despite the great diversity of bats (64 species) in the State of Acre, northwestern Brazil, there are no studies on occurrence and diversity of Bartonella spp. in bats in this region. The present study investigated the occurrence and molecular identity of Bartonella spp. in spleen samples (n = 271) from bats of 30 different species from this region, within the Amazon biome. Twenty-one out of 208 (10.1%) samples positive in the PCR for the mammalian gapdh endogenous genes were positive in the qPCR for Bartonella spp. based on the nuoG gene. The two gltA Bartonella genotypes detected grouped with those previously identified in bats from other locations, expanding the diversity of genotypes associated with bats. This study provided the first molecular evidence of the presence of Bartonella spp. in bats in the state of Acre and in bats of the species Lophostoma silvicolum, Vampyressa thyone, Tonatia saurophila and Phyllostomus elongatus.

First records of Secretargas transgariepinus (Argasidae) in Libya and Jordan: corrections of collection records and detection of microorganisms

The primarily bat-associated argasid tick, Secretargas transgariepinus (White, 1846), is a member of the Afrotropical and southern Palaearctic fauna. Probably because of its secretive life style, little is known about this species and records of its collection are scant. Based on morphological revisions of the available specimens, we report new Middle Eastern records for this tick species that had been misidentified as other bat-associated argasid taxa. These specimens are larvae from three localities, and represent the first records of S. transgariepinus from two countries: one larva from Sabratha (Libya) was collected from an unidentified bat species (possibly Eptesicus isabellinus), seven larvae from Azraq-Shishan (Jordan), and 78 larvae from Shamwari (Jordan) were all collected from Otonycteris hemprichii. Twenty larvae from Shamwari were also tested for the presence of both, viral or bacterial microorganisms by PCR. Three ticks were found to be infected with the Murid gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68), one with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, and four with a Rickettsia sp. closely related to Rickettsia slovaca. The findings represent a first evidence for the occurrence of these possible pathogens in S. transgariepinus.

Detection of ectoparasites and investigation of infection by Rickettsia spp. and Trypanosoma spp. in bats from Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

This study aimed to investigate the presence of ectoparasites and the occurrence of natural infection by Rickettsia spp. and Trypanosoma spp. in bats from Rio Grande do Sul (RS), Brazil. The evaluated animals were obtained from the Instituto de Pesquisas Veterinárias Desidério Finamor, sent by the Centro Estadual de Vigilância Sanitária, to carry out rabies diagnostic tests, during the period from 2016 to 2021. The bats came from 34 municipalities in RS. Of the 109 animals surveyed, 35.8% (39/109) had 385 ectoparasites, with an average of 9.9 parasites per animal. Of these bats, all had insectivorous feeding habits, with 35.9% (14/39) females and 64.1% (25/39) males. The co-parasitism of Chirnyssoides sp., Ewingana inaequalis, and Chiroptonyssus robustipes on Molossus currentium (Mammalia, Chiroptera) was recorded for the first time. All bats surveyed were negative for infection by the protozoan and bacteria. Thus, the expansion of the occurrence of these ectoparasites in insectivorous bats in RS was observed. Furthermore, this study corresponds to the first recorded interspecific associations for the species.

Zoonotic bacterial pathogens in bats samples around the world: a scoping review

The aim of this scoping review was to describe the zoonotic bacterial pathogens already reported and their frequency in different bat species. Six databases were searched, without restriction on the year or location where the studies were carried out. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 146 studies that were published between 1964 and 2020 (most after 2005) were selected. In these studies, 102 zoonotic bacterial genera were described in different samples of fourteen bat families in 55 countries, suggesting the possible role of bats as hosts for these pathogens. The pathogens mainly identified in bats were Bartonella spp., Leptospira spp. and Staphylococcus spp. In conclusion, the information provided by this scoping review expands the knowledge about zoonotic bacterial pathogens already identified in bats, which can guide epidemiological surveillance policies for these pathogens in different countries.

Bartonella in bat flies from the Egyptian fruit bat in the Middle East

In the family of fruit bats, Pteropodidae Gray, 1821, as in the third most diverse group of bats (Chiroptera), the bacterium of the genus Bartonella was detected in several species as well as in a few species of their insect ectoparasites in some tropical and sub-tropical regions of the Old World. The Egyptian fruit bat, Rousettus aegyptiacus (Geoffroy, 1810), is one of the most widespread fruit bats, occurring between South Africa, Senegal, and Pakistan. In this bat species, Candidatus Bartonella rousetti has been detected in three African populations in Nigeria, Kenya, and Zambia. This fruit bat, however, also occurs in the Palaearctic, an area isolating the species geographically and phylogenetically from the Afrotropical part of its distribution range. We screened the blood-sucking bat flies (family Nycteribiidae) from R. aegyptiacus for the presence of the Bartonella bacteria. A rich material of bat fly Eucampsipoda aegyptia (Macquart, 1850), a monoxenous ectoparasite of the Egyptian fruit bats, was collected at 26 localities in seven countries (Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen) of the Middle East in 2007-2013. The DNA isolates from the bat flies were subjected to a three-marker (gltA, ssrA, and intergenic spacer region, ITS) multilocus sequence analysis. Based on the amplification of the fragment of ssrA gene by a real-time PCR, 65 E. aegyptia samples from 19 localities in all seven countries were positive for the bacteria. One to five Bartonella-positive individuals of E. aegyptia were collected per one individual of R. aegyptiacus. An analysis of the ITS and gltA genes indicated the presence of an uncultured Bartonella sp., belonging to the Cand. B. rousetti genogroup, identified from populations of the Egyptian fruit bat in Africa. These results support the hypothesis that Bartonella's diversity corresponds to its host's diversity (and phylogenetic structure). Specific lineages of pathogens are present in specific phylogenetic groups of bats.

Bartonella Infection in Fruit Bats and Bat Flies, Bangladesh

Bats harbor diverse intracellular Bartonella bacteria, but there is limited understanding of the factors that influence transmission over time. Investigation of Bartonella dynamics in bats could reveal general factors that control transmission of multiple bat-borne pathogens, including viruses. We used molecular methods to detect Bartonella DNA in paired bat (Pteropus medius) blood and bat flies in the family Nycteribiidae collected from a roost in Faridpur, Bangladesh between September 2020 and January 2021. We detected high prevalence of Bartonella DNA in bat blood (35/55, 64%) and bat flies (59/60, 98%), with sequences grouping into three phylogenetic clades. Prevalence in bat blood increased over the study period (33% to 90%), reflecting an influx of juvenile bats in the population and an increase in the prevalence of bat flies. Discordance between infection status and the clade/genotype of detected Bartonella was also observed in pairs of bats and their flies, providing evidence that bat flies take blood meals from multiple bat hosts. This evidence of bat fly transfer between hosts and the changes in Bartonella prevalence during a period of increasing nycteribiid density support the role of bat flies as vectors of bartonellae. The study provides novel information on comparative prevalence and genetic diversity of Bartonella in pteropodid bats and their ectoparasites, as well as demographic factors that affect Bartonella transmission and potentially other bat-borne pathogens.

Detection of bacterial and protozoan pathogens in individual bats and their ectoparasites using high-throughput microfluidic real-time PCR

Among the most studied mammals in terms of their role in the spread of various pathogens with possible zoonotic effects are bats. These are animals with a very complex lifestyle, diet, and behavior. They are able to fly long distances, thus maintaining and spreading the pathogens they may be carrying. These pathogens also include vector-borne parasites and bacteria that can be spread by ectoparasites such as ticks and bat flies. In the present study, high-throughput screening was performed and we detected three bacterial pathogens: Bartonella spp., Neoehrlichia mikurensis and Mycoplasma spp., and a protozoan parasite: Theileria spp. in paired samples from bats (blood and ectoparasites). In the samples from the bat-arthropod pairs, we were able to detect Bartonella spp. and Mycoplasma spp. which also showed a high phylogenetic diversity, demonstrating the importance of these mammals and the arthropods associated with them in maintaining the spread of pathogens. Previous studies have also reported the presence of these pathogens, with one exception, Neoehrlichia mikurensis, for which phylogenetic analysis revealed less genetic divergence. High-throughput screening can detect more bacteria and parasites at once, reduce screening costs, and improve knowledge of bats as reservoirs of vector-borne pathogens. IMPORTANCE The increasing number of zoonotic pathogens is evident through extensive studies and expanded animal research. Bats, known for their role as reservoirs for various viruses, continue to be significant. However, new findings highlight the emergence of Bartonella spp., such as the human-infecting B. mayotimonensis from bats. Other pathogens like N. mikurensis, Mycoplasma spp., and Theileria spp. found in bat blood and ectoparasites raise concerns, as their impact remains uncertain. These discoveries underscore the urgency for heightened vigilance and proactive measures to understand and monitor zoonotic pathogens. By deepening our knowledge and collaboration, we can mitigate these risks, safeguarding human and animal well-being.

Analysis of COI gene, prevalence, and intensity of the bat fly Cyclopodia greeffi on roosting straw-coloured fruit bat Eidolon helvum in Southwest Nigeria

We investigated ectoparasite diversity, interspecific infestation rates and host preference in roosting fruit bats, Eidolon helvum, from Bowen University, Southwest Nigeria. Fur of captured E. helvum were sampled monthly for ectoparasites from January 2021 to June 2022. We examined a total of 231 E. helvum and observed a significant female to male adult sex ratio (0.22:1); with 53.9% ectoparasitic infestation rate. We identified and enumerated the ectoparasite; and subjected its Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene to phylogenetic analysis with other nycteribiids. COI gene sequences obtained formed a distinct clade with other C. greeffi sequences. We recovered a total of 319 (149 female and 170 male) ectoparasites and observed a balanced C. greeffi female to male adult sex ratio of 0.88:1. Ectoparasitic sex distribution had no association with host sex and season. Prevalence was significantly higher during the wet season, but not between sexes of E. helvum. The intensity of infestation, 3.7 ± 0.4 individuals per fruit bat, was significantly higher during the wet season with a bimodal seasonal distribution. The strongly male-biased host adult sex ratio had no significant influence on C. greeffi metapopulation adult sex ratio.

Vector-borne protozoan and bacterial pathogen occurrence and diversity in ectoparasites of the Egyptian Rousette bat

Bats are known reservoir hosts for a wide variety of parasites and pathogens, including bacteria and protozoans. Some of these pathogens are vector-borne, and although their role is poorly studied, ectoparasites may contribute significantly to their transmission. The aim of this study was to molecularly detect the presence of vector-borne microorganisms in bat-associated ectoparasites to explore their diversity and distribution in these insects. We tested the presence of Bartonella spp., Polychromophilus spp., and Trypanosoma spp. in bat flies and bat fleas collected from 56 Egyptian Rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus), using conventional PCR. We found a high prevalence of 43.9% (47/107) of Bartonella spp. in bat flies, but a low prevalence of 6.6% (4/61) in bat fleas. Polychromophilus and Trypanosoma DNA were absent in both bat flies and bat fleas. Furthermore, we found novel gltA Bartonella sequences, as well as genotypes that are highly similar to recently described and potentially zoonotic ones. Our results show high diversity of Bartonella in bat flies, however, their role in pathogen transmission is still unknown and should be further explored.

Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Bartonella Spp. in Northern Bats (Eptesicus nilssonii) and Their Blood-Sucking Ectoparasites in Hokkaido, Japan

We investigated the prevalence of Bartonella in 123 northern bats (Eptesicus nilssonii) and their ectoparasites from Hokkaido, Japan. A total of 174 bat fleas (Ischnopsyllus needhami) and two bat bugs (Cimex japonicus) were collected from the bats. Bartonella bacteria were isolated from 32 (26.0%) of 123 bats. Though Bartonella DNA was detected in 79 (45.4%) of the bat fleas, the bacterium was isolated from only one bat flea (0.6%). The gltA sequences of the isolates were categorized into genotypes I, II, and III, which were found in both bats and their fleas. The gltA sequences of genotypes I and II showed 97.6% similarity with Bartonella strains from a Finnish E. nilssonii and a bat flea from a E. serotinus in the Netherlands. The rpoB sequences of the genotypes showed 98.9% similarity with Bartonella strain 44722 from E. serotinus in Republic of Georgia. The gltA and rpoB sequences of genotype III showed 95.9% and 96.7% similarity with Bartonella strains detected in shrews in Kenya and France, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Bartonella isolates of genotypes I and II clustered with Bartonella strains from Eptesicus bats in Republic of Georgia and Finland, Myotis bats in Romania and the UK, and a bat flea from an Eptesicus bat in Finland. In contrast, genotype III formed a clade with B. florencae, B. acomydis, and B. birtlesii. These data suggest that northern bats in Japan harbor two Bartonella species and the bat flea serves as a potential vector of Bartonella transmission among the bats.

Parasitic fauna of bats from Costa Rica

Bats are important reservoirs and spreaders of pathogens, including those of zoonotic concern. Though Costa Rica hosts one of the highest bat species' diversity, no information is available about their parasites. In order to investigate the occurrence of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) and gastrointestinal (GI) parasites of chiropterans from this neotropical area, ectoparasites (n = 231) and stools (n = 64) were collected from 113 bats sampled in Santa Cruz (site 1) and Talamanca (site 2). Mites, fleas and ticks were morphologically and molecularly identified, as well as pathogens transmitted by vectors (VBPs, i.e., Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., Bartonella spp.) and from feces, such as Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and Eimeria spp. were molecularly investigated. Overall, 21 bat species belonging to 15 genera and 5 families were identified of which 42.5% were infested by ectoparasites, with a higher percentage of mites (38.9%, i.e., Cameronieta sp. and Mitonyssoides sp.) followed by flies (2.6%, i.e., Joblingia sp.) and tick larvae (1.7%, i.e., Ornithodoros sp.). Rickettsia spp. was identified in one immature tick and phylogenetically clustered with two Rickettsia species of the Spotted Fever Group (i.e., R. massiliae and R. rhipicephali). The frequency of GI parasite infection was 14%, being 3.1% of bats infected by Giardia spp. (un-identified non-duodenalis species), 1.5% by Eimeria spp. and 9.4% by Cryptosporidium spp. (bat and rodent genotypes; one C. parvum-related human genotype). The wide range of ectoparasites collected coupled with the detection of Rickettsia sp., Giardia and Cryptosporidium in bats from Costa Rica highlight the role these mammals may play as spreaders of pathogens and the need to further investigate the pathogenic potential of these parasites.

Interaction between Old World fruit bats and humans: From large scale ecosystem services to zoonotic diseases

The Old World tropical and subtropical frugivorous bat genus Rousettus (Pteropodidae) contains species with broad distributions, as well as those occurring in restricted geographical areas, particularly islands. Herein we review the role of Rousettus as a keystone species from a global "One Health" approach and related to ecosystem functioning, zoonotic disease and public health. Rousettus are efficient at dispersing seeds and pollinating flowers; their role in forest regeneration is related to their ability to fly considerable distances during nightly foraging bouts and their relatively small body size, which allows them to access fruits in forested areas with closed vegetation. Rousettus are also reservoirs for various groups of pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa), which, by definition, are infectious agents causing disease. The study of day roosts of different species of Rousettus and the successful establishment of captive breeding colonies have provided important details related to the infection dynamics of their associated pathogens. Large-scale conversion of forested areas into agricultural landscapes has increased contact between humans and Rousettus, therefore augmenting the chances of infectious agent spillover. Many crucial scientific details are still lacking related to members of this genus, which have direct bearing on the prevention of emerging disease outbreaks, as well as the conservation of these bats. The public should be better informed on the capacity of fruit bats as keystone species for large scale forest regeneration and in spreading pathogens. Precise details on the transmission of zoonotic diseases of public health importance associated with Rousettus should be given high priority.

Carios kelleyi (Acari: Ixodida: Argasidae) Infected With Rickettsial Agents Documented Infesting Housing in Kansas, United States

During September-December 2018, 25 live ticks were collected on-post at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, in a home with a history of bat occupancy. Nine ticks were sent to the Army Public Health Center Tick-Borne Disease Laboratory and were identified as Carios kelleyi (Cooley and Kohls, 1941), a species that seldom bites humans but that may search for other sources of blood meals, including humans, when bats are removed from human dwellings. The ticks were tested for numerous agents of human disease. Rickettsia lusitaniae was identified by multilocus sequence typing to be present in two ticks, marking the first detection of this Rickettsia agent in the United States and in this species of tick. Two other Rickettsia spp. were also detected, including an endosymbiont previously associated with C. kelleyi and a possible novel Rickettsia species. The potential roles of C. kelleyi and bats in peridomestic Rickettsia transmission cycles warrant further investigation.

Bats and their ectoparasites (Nycteribiidae and Spinturnicidae) carry diverse novel Bartonella genotypes, China

Bartonella species are facultative intracellular bacteria and recognized worldwide as emerging zoonotic pathogens. Bartonella were isolated or identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in bats and their ectoparasites worldwide, whereas the association between them was scarce, especially in Asia. In this study, a retrospective analysis with frozen samples was carried out to identify the genetic diversity of Bartonella in bats and their ectoparasites and to investigate the relationships of Bartonella carried by bats and their ectoparasites. Bats and their ectoparasites (bat flies and bat mites) were collected from caves in Hubei Province, Central China, from May 2018 to July 2020. Bartonella were screened by PCR amplification and sequencing of three genes (gltA, rpoB, and ftsZ). Bats, bat flies, and bat mites carried diverse novel Bartonella genotypes with a high prevalence. The sharing of some Bartonella genotypes between bats and bat flies or bat mites indicated a potential role of bat flies and bat mites as vectors of bartonellae, while the higher genetic diversity of Bartonella in bat flies than that in bats might be due to the vertical transmission of this bacterium in bat flies. Therefore, bat flies might also act as reservoirs of Bartonella. In addition, human‐pathogenic B. mayotimonesis was identified in both bats and their ectoparasites, which expanded our knowledge on the geographic distribution of this bacterium and suggested a potential bat origin with bat flies and bat mites playing important roles in the maintenance and transmission of Bartonella.

Relationship among bats, parasitic bat flies, and associated pathogens in Korea

Background

Bats are hosts for many ectoparasites and act as reservoirs for several infectious agents, some of which exhibit zoonotic potential. Here, species of bats and bat flies were identified and screened for microorganisms that could be mediated by bat flies.

Methods

Bat species were identified on the basis of their morphological characteristics. Bat flies associated with bat species were initially morphologically identified and further identified at the genus level by analyzing the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene. Different vector-borne pathogens and endosymbionts were screened using PCR to assess all possible relationships among bats, parasitic bat flies, and their associated organisms.

Results

Seventy-four bat flies were collected from 198 bats; 66 of these belonged to Nycteribiidae and eight to Streblidae families. All Streblidae bat flies were hosted by Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, known as the most common Korean bat. Among the 74 tested bat flies, PCR and nucleotide sequencing data showed that 35 (47.3%) and 20 (27.0%) carried Wolbachia and Bartonella bacteria, respectively, whereas tests for Anaplasma, Borrelia, Hepatozoon, Babesia, Theileria, and Coxiella were negative. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Wolbachia endosymbionts belonged to two different supergroups, A and F. One sequence of Bartonella was identical to that of Bartonella isolated from Taiwanese bats.

Conclusions

The vectorial role of bat flies should be checked by testing the same pathogen and bacterial organisms by collecting blood from host bats. This study is of great interest in the fields of disease ecology and public health owing to the bats’ potential to transmit pathogens to humans and/or livestock.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-021-05016-6.

Rickettsia spp. in bats of Romania: high prevalence of Rickettsia monacensis in two insectivorous bat species

Background

Spotted fever group rickettsiae represent one of the most diverse groups of vector-borne bacteria, with several human pathogenic species showing an emerging trend worldwide. Most species are vectored by ticks (Ixodidae), with many zoonotic reservoir species among most terrestrial vertebrate groups. While the reservoir competence of many different vertebrate species is well known (e.g. birds, rodents and dogs), studies on insectivorous bats have been rarely performed despite their high species diversity, ubiquitous urban presence and importance in harboring zoonotic disease agents. Romania has a high diversity and ubiquity of bats. Moreover, seven out of eight SFG rickettsiae species with zoonotic potential were previously reported in Romania. Based on this, the aim of this study was to detect Rickettsia species in tissue samples in bats.

Methods

Here we report a large-scale study (322 bats belonging to 20 species) on the presence of Rickettsia spp. in Romanian bat species. Tissue samples from insectivorous bats were tested for the presence of Rickettsia DNA using PCR detection amplifying a 381 bp fragment of the gltA gene. Positive results were sequenced to confirm the results. The obtained results were statistically analyzed by chi-squared independence test.

Results

Positive results were obtained in 14.6% of bat samples. Sequence analysis confirmed the presence of R. monacensis in two bat species (Nyctalus noctula and Pipistrellus pipistrellus) in two locations.

Conclusion

This study provides the first evidence of a possible involvement of these bat species in the epidemiology of Rickettsia spp., highlighting the importance of bats in natural cycles of these vector-borne pathogens.

Rickettsia hoogstraalii and a Rickettsiella from the Bat Tick Argas transgariepinus, in Namibia

Ectoparasites were collected from Eptesicus hottentotus, the long-tailed serotine bat, caught in Namibia as part of an ecological study. Larvae of Argas transgariepinus, a blood-feeding ectoparasite of bats in Africa, were removed from 3 of 18 bats. We present scanning electron microscope images of unengorged larvae. As with other ectoparasites, this bat tick might transmit pathogens such as Borrelia and Rickettsia to their hosts as has been reported for bat ticks in Europe and North America. We screened 3 pools (25 total) of larvae of A. transgariepinus removed from the long-tailed serotine bat Eptesicus hottentotus caught in Namibia. Two microbes of unknown pathogenicity, including Rickettsia hoogstraalii, a spotted fever group pathogen, and a Rickettsiella sp. were detected by molecular techniques.

Intra- and Inter-Host Assessment of Bartonella Diversity with Focus on Non-Hematophagous Bats and Associated Ectoparasites from Brazil

The relationship among bats, ectoparasites and associated microorganisms is important to investigate how humans can become exposed to zoonotic agents. Even though the diversity of Bartonella spp. in bats and ectoparasites has been previously reported, the occurrence of gltA genotypes within hosts has not been assessed so far. We aimed to investigate the genetic diversity of Bartonella spp. in non-hematophagous bats and associated ectoparasites by assessing cloned gltA Bartonella genotypes in intra- and inter-hosts levels, as well as by using three additional molecular markers. Overall, 13.5% (18/133) bat blood samples, 17.18% bat flies (11/64) and 23.8% (5/21) Macronyssidae mite pools showed to be positive for Bartonella spp. Seventeen positive samples were submitted to gltA-cloning and three clones were sequenced for each sample. We also obtained 11, seven and three sequences for nuoG, rpoB and ftsZ genes, respectively. None were positive for the other target genes. We found at least two genotypes among the three gltA-cloned sequences from each sample, and 13 between all the 51 sequences. Among the nuoG, rpoB and ftsZ sequences we found eight, five and three genotypes, respectively. In the phylogenetic analysis, the sequences were positioned mainly in groups related to Bartonella identified in rodents, bats and bat flies. Herein, we showed the genetic diversity of Bartonella in bat's blood and associated ectoparasites samples at both intra- and inter-host levels.

Detection and phylogenetic analysis of Bartonella species from bat flies on eastern bent-wing bats (Miniopterus fuliginosus) in Japan

We examined Bartonella prevalence in 281 bat flies collected from 114 eastern bent-wing bats (Miniopterus fuliginosus) in Japan and phylogenetically analyzed with other bat fly and bat strains. The bat flies were identified as Penicilidia jenynsii (PJ; n = 45), Nycteribia allotopa (NA; n = 157), and novel Nycteribia species (NS; n = 79). Bartonella DNAs were detected in 31.7 % (89/281) of bat flies by PCR targeting the citrate synthase (gltA) gene. The prevalence of Bartonella DNA among the bat flies was 47.1 % (74/157) in NA, 15.2 % (12/79) in NS, and 6.7 % (3/45) in PJ. Bartonella bacteria were also isolated from two NA and one NS. A phylogenetic analysis of the gltA sequences revealed that bat fly-associated strains were classified into three lineages and the same lineages of Bartonella were commonly detected from both Nycteribia bat flies and Miniopterus bats. These results suggest that Nycteribia bat flies are potential vectors for transmitting Bartonella among Miniopterus bats.

Bartonella and Rickettsia Infections in Haematophagous Spinturnix myoti Mites (Acari: Mesostigmata) and their Bat Host, Myotis myotis (Yangochiroptera: Vespertilionidae), from Poland

Hematophagous Spinturnix myoti mites and their host, the greater mouse-eared bat (Myotis myotis), were tested for the presence of Bartonella spp., Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. In total, Bartonella spp. DNA was amplified in 28% of 134 mite pools and in 25% of 59 bats tested by PCR targeting a fragment of citrate synthase gltA gen. Adult mites were at least threefold more frequently infected compared to immature stages. The overall infection prevalence among mite pools from cave-dwelling bats was higher than for those collected from attic shelters. Three distinct genotypes were detected. The most prevalent genotype in mites and bats matched closely with Candidatus Bartonella hemsundetiensis identified in bats from Finland and was relatively distant from bat-borne Bartonella strains described in the UK and France. Importantly, most sequences were close to those reported in forest workers from Poland. The presence of identical genotype among S. myoti samples and M. myotis bats suggests that bartonellae can be shared between mites and their bat hosts. In this case, wing mites could serve as vectors, whereas their hosts as reservoirs. One blood sample was positive by PCR for the msp2 gene of A. phagocytophilum. Two mite pools yielded Rickettsia spp. DNA. Both sequences were distinct from any known species but can be classified as spotted fever group Rickettsia spp. Our findings expanded our knowledge on the role of spinturnicid mites in the ecology and epidemiology of bacterial infections associated with vespertilionid bats, especially regarding the genus Bartonella.

Eco-epidemiology of Novel Bartonella Genotypes from Parasitic Flies of Insectivorous Bats

Bats are important zoonotic reservoirs for many pathogens worldwide. Although their highly specialized ectoparasites, bat flies (Diptera: Hippoboscoidea), can transmit Bartonella bacteria including human pathogens, their eco-epidemiology is unexplored. Here, we analyzed the prevalence and diversity of Bartonella strains sampled from 10 bat fly species from 14 European bat species. We found high prevalence of Bartonella spp. in most bat fly species with wide geographical distribution. Bat species explained most of the variance in Bartonella distribution with the highest prevalence of infected flies recorded in species living in dense groups exclusively in caves. Bat gender but not bat fly gender was also an important factor with the more mobile male bats giving more opportunity for the ectoparasites to access several host individuals. We detected high diversity of Bartonella strains (18 sequences, 7 genotypes, in 9 bat fly species) comparable with tropical assemblages of bat-bat fly association. Most genotypes are novel (15 out of 18 recorded strains have a similarity of 92-99%, with three sequences having 100% similarity to Bartonella spp. sequences deposited in GenBank) with currently unknown pathogenicity; however, 4 of these sequences are similar (up to 92% sequence similarity) to Bartonella spp. with known zoonotic potential. The high prevalence and diversity of Bartonella spp. suggests a long shared evolution of these bacteria with bat flies and bats providing excellent study targets for the eco-epidemiology of host-vector-pathogen cycles.

Bartonella DNA in heart tissues of bats in central and eastern Europe and a review of phylogenetic relations of bat-associated bartonellae

Background

Bats are among the most widely distributed mammals worldwide and can represent hosts or reservoirs for a number of different pathogens. Bartonella spp. are opportunistic bacterial pathogens, which are transmitted by a large variety of arthropods. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence and host-associations of these Gram-negative bacteria in heart tissues of bats collected in four different countries from eastern and central Europe and to analyze their phylogenetic relationship with other bat-associated bartonellae.

Results

The results of this study show for the first time the presence of Bartonella spp. DNA in heart tissues of bats from central and eastern Europe. The overall prevalence of the infection was 1.38%. Phylogenetic analysis identified four new Bartonella spp. sequences, which were closely related with other Bartonella previously isolated from bats in Europe and North America.

Conclusions

The gltA sequences of Bartonella spp. showed considerable heterogeneity in the phylogenetic analysis resulting in six different clades. Our study demonstrated the presence of Bartonella spp. only in heart tissues of bats from Romania, with two new bat species recorded as hosts (Myotis cf. alcathoe and Pipistrellus pipistrellus).

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-3070-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Molecular detection of Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. in bat ectoparasites in Brazil

The family Streblidae comprises a monophyletic group of Hippoboscoidea, hematophagous dipterans that parasitize bats. Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. have been reported in bats sampled in Europe, Africa, Asia, North, Central and South America. However, there are few reports on the Bartonella and Rickettsia bacteria infecting Hippoboscoidea flies and mites. While Spinturnicidae mites are ectoparasites found only in bats, those belonging to the family Macronyssidae comprise mites that also parasitize other mammal species. This study investigates the occurrence and assesses the phylogenetic positioning of Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. found in Streblidae flies and Spinturnicidae and Macronyssidae mites collected from bats captured in Brazil. From May 2011 to April 2012 and September 2013 to December 2014, 400 Streblidae flies, 100 Macronyssidaes, and 100 Spinturnicidae mites were collected from bats captured in two sites in northeastern Nova Iguaçu, Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil. Forty (19.8%) out of 202 Streblidae flies were positive for Bartonella spp. in qPCR assays based on the nuoG gene. Among the flies positive for the bacterium, six (18%) were Paratrichobius longicrus, seven (29%) Strebla guajiro, two (40%) Aspidoptera phyllostomatis, five (11%) Aspidoptera falcata, one (10%) Trichobius anducei, one (25%) Megistopoda aranea, and 18 (32%) Trichobius joblingi, and collected from bats of the following species: Artibeus lituratus, Carollia perspicillata, Artibeus planirostris, Sturnira lilium, and Artibeus obscurus. Six sequences were obtained for Bartonella (nuoG [n = 2], gltA [n = 2], rpoB [n = 1], ribC = 1]). The phylogenetic analysis based on gltA (750pb) gene showed that the Bartonella sequences clustered with Bartonella genotypes detected in bats and ectoparasites previously sampled in Latin America, including Brazil. Only one sample (0.49%) of the species Trichobius joblingi collected from a specimen of Carollia perspicillata was positive for Rickettsia sp. in cPCR based on the gltA gene (401bp). This sequence was clustered with a 'Candidatus Rickettsia andaenae" genotype detected in an Amblyomma parvum tick collected from a rodent in the southern region of Brazilian Pantanal. The sampled Macronyssidae and Spinturnicidae mites were negative for Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. This study demonstrated the first occurrence of Bartonella spp. and Rickettsia spp. DNA in Streblidae flies collected from bats in Brazil.

Babesia vesperuginis in insectivorous bats from China

Background

To increase understanding of human bacterial and parasitic pathogens in bats, we investigated the prevalence of Babesia spp., Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp. and Coxiella burnetii in bats from China.

Methods

Bats were captured from Mengyin County, Shandong Province of China using nets. DNA was extracted from the blood and spleen of bats for molecular detection of Babesia spp., Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp. and Coxiella burnetii with specific primers for each species.

Results

A total of 146 spleen samples and 107 blood samples of insectivorous bats, which belonged to 6 species within two families, were collected from Mengyin County, Shandong Province of China. We found that two Eptesicus serotinus (2/15, 13.3%) were positive for Babesia vesperuginis. We were unable to detect genomic sequences for Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp. and Coxiella burnetii.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, our study showed for the first time the presence of Babesia vesperuginis in Eptesicus serotinus collected from China, suggesting that Babesia vesperuginis has a broad host species and geographical distribution.

Synchronized shift of oral, faecal and urinary microbiotas in bats and natural infection dynamics during seasonal reproduction

Seasonal reproduction is a period of extreme physiological and behavioural changes, yet we know little about how it may affect host microbial communities (i.e. microbiota) and pathogen transmission. Here, we investigated shifts of the bacterial microbiota in saliva, urine and faeces during the seasonal reproduction of bats in South Africa, and test for an interaction in shedding patterns of both bacterial (Leptospira) and viral (adeno- and herpesviruses) agents. Based on a comparative approach in two cave-dwelling bat species and high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene, we demonstrated a clear signature in microbiota changes over the reproduction season, consistent across the multiple body habitats investigated, and associated with the sex, age and reproductive condition of bats. We observed in parallel highly dynamic shedding patterns for both bacteria and viruses, but did not find a significant association between viral shedding and bacterial microbiota composition. Indeed, only Leptospira shedding was associated with alterations in both the diversity and composition of the urinary microbiota. These results illustrate how seasonal reproduction in bats substantially affects microbiota composition and infection dynamics, and have broad implications for the understanding of disease ecology in important reservoir hosts, such as bats.

Neglected aspects of tick-borne rickettsioses

Rickettsioses are among the oldest known infectious diseases. In spite of this, and of the extensive research carried out, many aspects of the biology and epidemiology of tick-borne rickettsiae are far from being completely understood. Their association with arthropod vectors, the importance of vertebrates as reservoirs, the rarity of clinical signs in animals, or the interactions of pathogenic species with rickettsial endosymbionts and with the host intracellular environment, are only some examples. Moreover, new rickettsiae are continuously being discovered. In this review, we focus on the ‘neglected’ aspects of tick-borne rickettsioses and on the gaps in knowledge, which could help to explain why these infections are still emerging and re-emerging threats worldwide.

Molecular Detection of Bartonella Species in Blood-Feeding Bat Flies from Mexico

Bartonellae are emerging blood-borne bacteria that have been recovered from a wide range of mammalian species and arthropod vectors around the world. Bats are now recognized as a potential wildlife reservoir for a diverse number of Bartonella species, including the zoonotic Candidatus B. mayotimonensis. These bat-borne Bartonella species have also been detected in the obligate ectoparasites of bats, such as blood-feeding flies, which could transmit these bacteria within bat populations. To better understand this potential for transmission, we investigated the relatedness between Bartonella detected or isolated from bat hosts sampled in Mexico and their ectoparasites. Bartonella spp. were identified in bat flies collected on two bat species, with the highest prevalence in Trichobius parasiticus and Strebla wiedemanni collected from common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus). When comparing Bartonella sequences from a fragment of the citrate synthase gene (gltA), vector-associated strains were diverse and generally close to, but distinct from, those recovered from their bacteremic bat hosts in Mexico. Complete Bartonella sequence concordance was observed in only one bat-vector pair. The diversity of Bartonella strains in bat flies reflects the frequent host switch by bat flies, as they usually do not live permanently on their bat host. It may also suggest a possible endosymbiotic relationship with these vectors for some of the Bartonella species carried by bat flies, whereas others could have a mammalian host.

Bartonella, bats and bugs: A review

Ecological, immunological, and epidemiological factors enable bats to transmit an increasingly recognized spectrum of zoonotic agents, and bartonellae are among those emerging pathogens identified in bats and their arthropod ectoparasites. Current data reveal a multifaceted disease ecology where diverse host species distributed around the world interact with a number of Bartonella spp. and several potential vectors. This review summarizes the methods and findings of studies conducted since 2005 to illustrate that Bartonella bacteremia varies by bat species, location, and other potential variables, such as diet with a very high prevalence in hematophagous bats. Among bat families, Bartonella prevalence ranged from 7.3% among Nycteridae to 54.4% in Miniopteridae. Further research can build on these current data to better determine risk factors associated with Bartonella infection in bat populations and the role of their ectoparasites in transmission.

Diversity and phylogenetic relationships among Bartonella strains from Thai bats

Bartonellae are phylogenetically diverse, intracellular bacteria commonly found in mammals. Previous studies have demonstrated that bats have a high prevalence and diversity of Bartonella infections globally. Isolates (n = 42) were obtained from five bat species in four provinces of Thailand and analyzed using sequences of the citrate synthase gene (gltA). Sequences clustered into seven distinct genogroups; four of these genogroups displayed similarity with Bartonella spp. sequences from other bats in Southeast Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe. Thirty of the isolates representing these seven genogroups were further characterized by sequencing four additional loci (ftsZ, nuoG, rpoB, and ITS) to clarify their evolutionary relationships with other Bartonella species and to assess patterns of diversity among strains. Among the seven genogroups, there were differences in the number of sequence variants, ranging from 1-5, and the amount of nucleotide divergence, ranging from 0.035-3.9%. Overall, these seven genogroups meet the criteria for distinction as novel Bartonella species, with sequence divergence among genogroups ranging from 6.4-15.8%. Evidence of intra- and intercontinental phylogenetic relationships and instances of homologous recombination among Bartonella genogroups in related bat species were found in Thai bats.

Bartonella Infection in Hematophagous, Insectivorous, and Phytophagous Bat Populations of Central Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula

Although emerging nonviral pathogens remain relatively understudied in bat populations, there is an increasing focus on identifying bat-associated bartonellae around the world. Many novel Bartonella strains have been described from both bats and their arthropod ectoparasites, including Bartonella mayotimonensis, a zoonotic agent of human endocarditis. This cross-sectional study was designed to describe novel Bartonella strains isolated from bats sampled in Mexico and evaluate factors potentially associated with infection. A total of 238 bats belonging to seven genera were captured in five states of Central Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula. Animals were screened by bacterial culture from whole blood and/or polymerase chain reaction of DNA extracted from heart tissue or blood. Bartonella spp. were isolated or detected in 54 (22.7%) bats, consisting of 41 (38%) hematophagous, 10 (16.4%) insectivorous, and three (4.3%) phytophagous individuals. This study also identified Balantiopteryx plicata as another possible bat reservoir of Bartonella. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models suggested that Bartonella infection was positively associated with blood-feeding diet and ectoparasite burden. Phylogenetic analysis identified a number of genetic variants across hematophagous, phytophagous, and insectivorous bats that are unique from described bat-borne Bartonella species. However, these strains were closely related to those bartonellae previously identified in bat species from Latin America.

Evidence and molecular characterization ofBartonellaspp. and hemoplasmas in neotropical bats in Brazil

The order Chiroptera is considered the second largest group of mammals in the world, hosting important zoonotic virus and bacteria.Bartonellaand hemotropic mycoplasmas are bacteria that parasite different mammals’ species, including humans, causing different clinical manifestations. The present work aimed investigating the occurrence and assessing the phylogenetic positioning ofBartonellaspp. andMycoplasmaspp. in neotropical bats sampled from Brazil. Between December 2015 and April 2016, 325 blood and/or tissues samples were collected from 162 bats comprising 19 different species sampled in five states of Brazil. Out of 322 bat samples collected, while 17 (5·28%) were positive to quantitative PCR forBartonellaspp. based onnuoGgene, 45 samples (13·97%) were positive to cPCR assays for hemoplasmas based on 16S rRNA gene. While seven sequences were obtained forBartonella(nuoG) (n= 3),gltA(n= 2),rpoB(n= 1),ftsZ(n= 1), five 16S rRNA sequences were obtained for hemoplasmas. In the phylogenetic analysis, theBartonellasequences clustered withBartonellagenotypes detected in bats sampled in Latin America countries. All five hemoplasmas sequences clustered together as a monophyletic group by Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference analyses. The present work showed the first evidence of circulation ofBartonellaspp. and hemoplasmas among bats in Brazil.

Prevalence, diversity, and host associations of Bartonella strains in bats from Georgia (Caucasus)

Bartonella infections were investigated in seven species of bats from four regions of the Republic of Georgia. Of the 236 bats that were captured, 212 (90%) specimens were tested for Bartonella infection. Colonies identified as Bartonella were isolated from 105 (49.5%) of 212 bats Phylogenetic analysis based on sequence variation of the gltA gene differentiated 22 unique Bartonella genogroups. Genetic distances between these diverse genogroups were at the level of those observed between different Bartonella species described previously. Twenty-one reference strains from 19 representative genogroups were characterized using four additional genetic markers. Host specificity to bat genera or families was reported for several Bartonella genogroups. Some Bartonella genotypes found in bats clustered with those identified in dogs from Thailand and humans from Poland.

Bacteria of the genus Bartonella parasitize erythrocytes and endothelial cells of a wide range of mammals and recently were reported in bats from Africa, Asia, America, and northern Europe. A human disease case in the USA was associated with a novel Bartonella species, which later was identified in bats in Finland. This human case has demonstrated the zoonotic potential of bat-borne Bartonella and underscores the need for extended surveillance and studies of these pathogens. The present work assesses prevalence and diversity of Bartonella in bats in the country of Georgia (southern Caucasus), characterizes reference strains representing diverse genogroups by variation of genetic loci, and evaluates the links between identified Bartonella genogroups and bat hosts. Importantly, some Bartonella genotypes found in bats were close or identical to those identified in dogs and humans. The data indicate that the public health impact of Bartonella carried by bats should be investigated.

'Candidatus Rickettsia nicoyana': A novel Rickettsia species isolated from Ornithodoros knoxjonesi in Costa Rica

Rickettsiae are intracellular bacteria commonly associated with hematophagous arthropods. Most of them have been described in hard ticks, but some have been found in soft ticks. Here we report the detection and isolation of a new Rickettsia from Ornithodoros knoxjonesi larvae collected from Balantiopteryx plicata (Emballonuridae) in Nicoya, Costa Rica. Two ticks were processed to detect Rickettsia spp. genes gltA, ompA, ompB, and htrA by PCR. Part of the macerate was also inoculated into Vero E6 and C6/36 cell lines, and cells were evaluated by Giménez stain, indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), and PCR. Both ticks were positive by PCR and rickettsial growth was successful in Vero E6 cells. Amplification and sequencing of near full length rrs, gltA, sca4 genes, and fragments of ompA and ompB showed that the Rickettsia sp. was different from described species. The highest homologies were with 'Candidatus Rickettsia wissemanii' and Rickettsia peacockii: 99.70% (1321/1325) with both sequences for rrs, 99.58% (1172/1177) and 99.76% (1246/1249) for gltA, 99.26% with both sequences (2948/2970 and 2957/2979) for sca4, 98.78% (485/491) and 98.39% (2069/2115) for ompA, and 98.58 (1453/1474) and 98.92% (1459/1475) for ompB; respectively. Bat blood, spleen, liver, and lung samples analyzed for Rickettsia detection were negative. Results demonstrate that the Rickettsia isolated from O. knoxjonesi is probably an undescribed species that belongs to the spotted fever group, for which 'Candidatus Rickettsia nicoyana' is proposed. Considering that B. plicata inhabits areas where contact with humans may occur and that human parasitism by Ornithodoros has been reported in the country, it will be important to continue with the characterization of this species and its pathogenic potential.

Novel Bartonella Species in Insectivorous Bats, Northern China

Bartonella species are emerging human pathogens. Bats are known to carry diverse Bartonella species, some of which are capable of infecting humans. However, as the second largest mammalian group by a number of species, the role of bats as the reservoirs of Bartonella species is not fully explored, in term of their species diversity and worldwide distribution. China, especially Northern China, harbors a number of endemic insectivorous bat species; however, to our knowledge, there are not yet studies about Bartonella in bats in China. The aim of the study was to investigate the prevalence and genetic diversity of Bartonella species in bats in Northern China. Bartonella species were detected by PCR amplification of gltA gene in 25.2% (27/107) bats in Mengyin County, Shandong Province of China, including 1/3 Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, 2/10 Rhinolophus pusillus, 9/16 Myotis fimbriatus, 1/5 Myotis ricketti, 14/58 Myotis pequinius. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Bartonella species detected in bats in this study clustered into ten groups, and some might be novel Bartonella species. An association between Bartonella species and bat species was demonstrated and co-infection with different Bartonella species in a single bat was also observed. Our findings expanded our knowledge on the genetic diversity of Bartonella in bats, and shed light on the ecology of bat-borne Bartonella species.

Detection of a Potential New Bartonella Species "Candidatus Bartonella rondoniensis" in Human Biting Kissing Bugs (Reduviidae; Triatominae)

BACKGROUND

Among the Reduviidae family, triatomines are giant blood-sucking bugs. They are well known in Central and South America where they transmit Trypanosoma cruzi to mammals, including humans, through their feces. This parasitic protozoan is the causative agent of Chagas disease, a major public health issue in endemic areas. Because of the medical and economic impact of Chagas disease, the presence of other arthropod-borne pathogens in triatomines was rarely investigated.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In this study, seven triatomines species involved in the transmission of T. cruzi were molecularly screened for the presence of known pathogens generally associated with arthropods, such as Rickettsia, Bartonella, Anaplasmataceae, Borrelia species and Coxiella burnetii. Of all included triatomine species, only Eratyrus mucronatus specimens tested positive for Bartonella species for 56% of tested samples. A new genotype of Bartonella spp. was detected in 13/23 Eratyrus mucronatus specimens, an important vector of T. cruzi to humans. This bacterium was further characterized by sequencing fragments of the ftsZ, gltA and rpoB genes. Depending on the targeted gene, this agent shares 84% to 91% of identity with B. bacilliformis, the agent of Carrion's disease, a deadly sandfly-borne infectious disease endemic in South America. It is also closely related to animal pathogens such as B. bovis and B. chomelii.

CONCLUSIONS

As E. mucronatus is an invasive species that occasionally feeds on humans, the presence of potentially pathogenic Bartonella-infected bugs could present another risk for human health, along with the T. cruzi issue.