1
|
Westermann J, Srikant T, Gonzalo A, Tan HS, Bomblies K. Defective pollen tube tip growth induces neo-polyploid infertility. Science 2024; 383:eadh0755. [PMID: 38422152 DOI: 10.1126/science.adh0755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Genome duplication (generating polyploids) is an engine of novelty in eukaryotic evolution and a promising crop improvement tool. Yet newly formed polyploids often have low fertility. Here we report that a severe fertility-compromising defect in pollen tube tip growth arises in new polyploids of Arabidopsis arenosa. Pollen tubes of newly polyploid A. arenosa grow slowly, have aberrant anatomy and disrupted physiology, often burst prematurely, and have altered gene expression. These phenotypes recover in evolved polyploids. We also show that gametophytic (pollen tube) genotypes of two tip-growth genes under selection in natural tetraploid A. arenosa are strongly associated with pollen tube performance in the tetraploid. Our work establishes pollen tube tip growth as an important fertility challenge for neo-polyploid plants and provides insights into a naturally evolved multigenic solution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jens Westermann
- Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Thanvi Srikant
- Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Adrián Gonzalo
- Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Hui San Tan
- Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Kirsten Bomblies
- Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Qiu L, Hu S, Wang Y, Qu H. Accumulation of Abnormal Amyloplasts in Pulp Cells Induces Bitter Pit in Malus domestica. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:738726. [PMID: 34630490 PMCID: PMC8496688 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.738726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Apple bitter pit primarily occurs during fruit ripening and storage; however, its formation mechanism remains unclear. Although it is considered that Ca2+ deficiency causes metabolic disorders in apples, there have been few studies on the mechanism of the bitter pit from the perspective of cell structure. At the fruit ripening stage, the fruit with a bitter pit on the tree was taken as the research material. In this study, the microscopic observation revealed numerous amyloplasts in the pulp cells of apples affected with bitter pit, but not in the healthy pulp. Furthermore, the results of fluorescence staining and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed that the bitter pit pulp cells undergo programmed cell death (PCD), their nuclear chromosomes condense, and amyloplast forms autophagy. The cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration in the healthy fruits was lowest near the peduncle, followed by that in the calyx, whereas it was highest at the equator. In contrast, the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration in apple fruits showing bitter pit disorder was lowest near the peduncle and highest in the calyx. Moreover, the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration in the flesh cells of apples with the bitter pit was much lower than that in the healthy apple flesh cells; however, the concentration of Ca2+ in the vacuoles of fruits with the bitter pit was higher than that in the vacuoles of healthy fruits. In summary, bitter pit pulp cells contain a large number of amyloplasts, which disrupts the distribution of Ca2+ in the pulp cells and causes PCD. These two processes lead to an imbalance in cell metabolism and induce the formation of a bitter pit.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yongzhang Wang
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Haiyong Qu
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Althiab-Almasaud R, Chen Y, Maza E, Djari A, Frasse P, Mollet JC, Mazars C, Jamet E, Chervin C. Ethylene signaling modulates tomato pollen tube growth through modifications of cell wall remodeling and calcium gradient. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 107:893-908. [PMID: 34036648 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ethylene modulates plant developmental processes including flower development. Previous studies have suggested ethylene participates in pollen tube (PT) elongation, and both ethylene production and perception seem critical at the time of fertilization. The full gene set regulated by ethylene during PT growth is unknown. To study this, we used various EThylene Receptor (ETR) tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) mutants: etr3-ko, a loss-of-function (LOF) mutant; and NR (NEVER RIPE), a gain-of-function (GOF) mutant. The etr3-ko PTs grew faster than wild-type (WT) PTs. Oppositely, NR PT elongation was slower than in WT, and PTs displayed larger diameters. ETR mutations result in feedback control of ethylene production. Furthermore, ethylene treatment of germinating pollen grains increased PT length in etr-ko mutants and WT, but not in NR. Treatment with the ethylene perception inhibitor 1-methylcyclopropene decreased PT length in etr-ko mutants and WT, but had no effect on NR. This confirmed that ethylene regulates PT growth. The comparison of PT transcriptomes in LOF and GOF mutants, etr3-ko and NR, both harboring mutations of the ETR3 gene, revealed that ethylene perception has major impacts on cell wall- and calcium-related genes as confirmed by microscopic observations showing a modified distribution of the methylesterified homogalacturonan pectic motif and of calcium load. Our results establish links between PT growth, ethylene, calcium, and cell wall metabolism, and also constitute a transcriptomic resource.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rasha Althiab-Almasaud
- Laboratoire de Génomique et Biotechnologie des Fruits, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse INP-ENSAT, INRAE, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Yi Chen
- Laboratoire de Génomique et Biotechnologie des Fruits, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse INP-ENSAT, INRAE, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
- College of Food and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Elie Maza
- Laboratoire de Génomique et Biotechnologie des Fruits, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse INP-ENSAT, INRAE, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Anis Djari
- Laboratoire de Génomique et Biotechnologie des Fruits, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse INP-ENSAT, INRAE, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Pierre Frasse
- Laboratoire de Génomique et Biotechnologie des Fruits, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse INP-ENSAT, INRAE, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Jean-Claude Mollet
- Laboratoire Glyco-MEV, SFR NORVEGE, Innovation Chimie Carnot, Normandie Univ, UniRouen, Rouen, France
| | - Christian Mazars
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Elisabeth Jamet
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| | - Christian Chervin
- Laboratoire de Génomique et Biotechnologie des Fruits, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse INP-ENSAT, INRAE, Auzeville-Tolosane, France
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Williams PDE, Verma S, Robertson AP, Martin RJ. Adapting techniques for calcium imaging in muscles of adult Brugia malayi. INVERTEBRATE NEUROSCIENCE 2020; 20:12. [PMID: 32803437 DOI: 10.1007/s10158-020-00247-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Brugia malayi is a human filarial nematode parasite that causes lymphatic filariasis or 'elephantiasis' a disfiguring neglected tropical disease. This parasite is a more tractable nematode parasite for the experimental study of anthelmintic drugs and has been studied with patch-clamp and RNAi techniques. Unlike in C. elegans however, calcium signaling in B. malayi or other nematode parasites has not been achieved, limiting the studies of the mode of action of anthelmintic drugs. We describe here the development of calcium imaging methods that allow us to characterize changes in cellular calcium in the muscles of B. malayi. This is a powerful technique that can help in elucidating the mode of action of selected anthelmintics. We developed two approaches that allow the recording of calcium signals in the muscles of adult B. malayi: (a) soaking the muscles with Fluo-3AM, promoting large-scale imaging of multiple cells simultaneously and, (b) direct insertion of Fluo-3 using microinjection, providing the possibility of performing dual calcium and electrophysiological recordings. Here, we describe the techniques used to optimize dye entry into the muscle cells and demonstrate that detectable increases in Fluo-3 fluorescence to elevated calcium concentrations can be achieved in B. malayi using both techniques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul D E Williams
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1800 Christensen Dr, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Saurabh Verma
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1800 Christensen Dr, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Alan P Robertson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1800 Christensen Dr, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
| | - Richard J Martin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1800 Christensen Dr, Ames, IA, 50011, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Qiu L, Wang Y, Qu H. Loading calcium fluorescent probes into protoplasts to detect calcium in the flesh tissue cells of Malus domestica. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2020; 7:91. [PMID: 32528703 PMCID: PMC7261807 DOI: 10.1038/s41438-020-0315-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Cytosolic Ca2+ plays a key role in signal transduction in plants. Calcium imaging is the most common approach to studying dynamic changes in the cytoplasmic Ca2+ content. Here, we used mature 'Fuji' apples (Malus pumila Mill.) to obtain viable protoplasts from flesh tissue cells by enzymatic hydrolysis; then, three small-molecule fluorescent probes (fluo-8/AM, fluo-4/AM, and rhod-2/AM) were loaded into the protoplasts. All three Ca2+ fluorescent probes successfully entered the cytoplasm but did not enter the vacuole. Both the Ca2+ chelator (EGTA) and Ca2+ channel blocker (La3+) reduced the fluorescence intensity in the cytoplasm. The calcium ionophore A23187 increased the fluorescence intensity in the cytoplasm at 5 µmol/L but decreased it at 50 µmol/L. Additionally, A23187 reversed the fluorescence intensity in the cytoplasm, which was decreased by La3+. Ionomycin is also a calcium ionophore that can increase the fluorescence intensity of calcium in the cytoplasm. These results suggest that small-molecule Ca2+ fluorescent probes can be used to detect changes in cytosolic calcium levels in the cells of fruit flesh tissue. In addition, the optimum concentration of fluo-8/AM was determined to be 5 µmol/L. This was the first time that protoplasts have been isolated from apple flesh tissue cells and small-molecule fluorescent probes have been used to detect calcium in the cytoplasm of flesh tissue cells. This study provides a new method to study calcium signal transduction in fruit flesh tissue.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lina Qiu
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao City, China
| | - Yongzhang Wang
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao City, China
| | - Haiyong Qu
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao City, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Parrotta L, Faleri C, Guerriero G, Cai G. Cold stress affects cell wall deposition and growth pattern in tobacco pollen tubes. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 283:329-342. [PMID: 31128704 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2019.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Cold is an abiotic stress seriously threatening crop productivity by decreasing biomass production. The pollen tube is a target of cold stress, but also a useful model to address questions on cell wall biosynthesis. We here provide (immuno)cytological data relative to the impact of cold on the pollen tube cell wall. We clearly show that the growth pattern is severely affected by the stress, since the typical pulsed-growth mechanism accompanied by the periodic deposition of pectin rings is absent/severely reduced. Additionally, pectins and cellulose accumulate in bulges provoked by the stress, while callose, which colocalizes with pectins in the periodic rings formed during pulsed growth, accumulates randomly in the stressed samples. The altered distribution of the cell wall components is accompanied by differences in the localization of glucan synthases: cellulose synthase shows a more diffuse localization, while callose synthase shows a more frequent cytoplasmic accumulation, thereby denoting a failure in plasma membrane insertion. The cell wall observations are complemented by the analysis of intracellular Ca2+, pH and reactive oxygen species (ROS): while in the case of pH no major differences are observed, a less focused Ca2+ and ROS gradients are present in the stressed samples. The standard oscillatory growth of pollen tubes is recovered by transient changes of turgor pressure induced by hypoosmotic media. Overall our data contribute to the understanding of the impact that cold stress has on the normal development of the pollen tube and unveil the cell wall-related aberrant features accompanying the observed alterations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Parrotta
- Università di Bologna, Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche e Ambientali, Via Irnerio 42, Bologna, Italy
| | - Claudia Faleri
- Università di Siena, Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, via P.A. Mattioli 4, Siena, Italy
| | - Gea Guerriero
- Research and Innovation Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, 5 avenue des Hauts-Fourneaux, L-4362, Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Giampiero Cai
- Università di Siena, Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, via P.A. Mattioli 4, Siena, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wang Y, Zhang X, Wang Y, Yang S, Qu H. The changes of intracellular calcium concentration and distribution in the hard end pear (Pyrus pyrifolia cv. 'Whangkeumbae') fruit. Cell Calcium 2018; 71:15-23. [PMID: 29604960 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Hard end is a physiological disorder of pear fruit that is frequently observed in the 'Whangkeumbae' (Pyrus pyrifolia) variety, however, the mechanisms that are involved in its development are poorly understood. In this study, we explored the causes of hard end disorder in pear fruit in relation to calcium deficiency. During fruit development, the ratio of Ca/N, Ca/K, Ca/Mg and the content of B were significantly lower in the hard end fruit as compared to normal fruit. However, no calcium deficiency was detected in the soil and leaves of the orchard where the hard end fruit were located. Additionally, the Ca2+ influx in the calyx of hard end fruit was lower than that of normal fruit at 90 d after anthesis. The free Ca2+ and storage Ca2+ in the flesh cells of hard end fruit were less than that of normal fruit during fruit development, while an opposite tendency was observed at 120 d after anthesis (harvest day). In hard end fruit, the Ca2+ transport-related gene, PpCNGC1 (Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel 1), was up-regulated; whereas the Ca2+ sensor-related genes of PpCIPKs, PpCDPK28 and PpCML41 were all down-regulated. Spraying with a 2% calcium chloride (CaCl2) solution inhibited the incidence rate of hard end disorder and decreased fruit firmness and lignin content during storage. Additionally, the ratio of Ca/N, Ca/K, Ca/Mg and the content of B all increased on harvest day. Our study suggests that low Ca2+ influx leads to less Ca2+ into the pear fruit, which results in an intracellular imbalance of Ca2+ and consequently triggers the development of hard end disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuling Wang
- Qingdao Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement and Breeding in Horticultural Plants, College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, No. 700 Changcheng Road, Chengyang, Qingdao City, 266109, Shandong Province, China
| | - Xinfu Zhang
- Qingdao Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement and Breeding in Horticultural Plants, College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, No. 700 Changcheng Road, Chengyang, Qingdao City, 266109, Shandong Province, China
| | - Yongzhang Wang
- Qingdao Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement and Breeding in Horticultural Plants, College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, No. 700 Changcheng Road, Chengyang, Qingdao City, 266109, Shandong Province, China
| | - Shaolan Yang
- Qingdao Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement and Breeding in Horticultural Plants, College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, No. 700 Changcheng Road, Chengyang, Qingdao City, 266109, Shandong Province, China.
| | - Haiyong Qu
- Qingdao Key Laboratory of Genetic Improvement and Breeding in Horticultural Plants, College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural University, No. 700 Changcheng Road, Chengyang, Qingdao City, 266109, Shandong Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Qu H, Guan Y, Wang Y, Zhang S. PLC-Mediated Signaling Pathway in Pollen Tubes Regulates the Gametophytic Self-incompatibility of Pyrus Species. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:1164. [PMID: 28729872 PMCID: PMC5498517 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Among the Rosaceae species, the gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI) is controlled by a single multi-allelic S locus, which is composed of the pistil-S and pollen-S genes. The pistil-S gene encodes a polymorphic ribonuclease (S-RNase), which is essential for identifying self-pollen. However, the S-RNase system has not been fully characterized. In this study, the self-S-RNase inhibited the Ca2+-permeable channel activity at pollen tube apices and the selectively decreased phospholipase C (PLC) activity in the plasma membrane of Pyrus pyrifolia pollen tubes. Self-S-RNase decreased the Ca2+ influx through a PLC-mediated signaling pathway. Phosphatidylinositol-specific PLC has a 26-amino acid insertion in pollen tubes of the 'Jinzhuili' cultivar, which is a spontaneous self-compatible mutant of the 'Yali' cultivar. 'Yali' plants exhibit a typical S-RNase-based GSI. Upon self-pollination, PLC gene expression is significantly higher in 'Jinzhuili' pollen tubes than that in 'Yali' pollen tubes. Moreover, the PLC in pollen tubes can only interact with one of the two types of S-RNase from the style. In the Pyrus x bretschneideri Rehd, the PLC directly interacted with the S7-RNase in the pollen tube, but not with the S34-RNase. Collectively, our results reveal that the effects of S-RNase on PLC activity are required for S-specific pollen rejection, and that PLC-IP3 participates in the self-incompatibility reaction of Pyrus species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haiyong Qu
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural UniversityQingdao, China
| | - Yaqin Guan
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural UniversityQingdao, China
| | - Yongzhang Wang
- College of Horticulture, Qingdao Agricultural UniversityQingdao, China
| | - Shaolin Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural UniversityNanjing, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Suwińska A, Wasąg P, Zakrzewski P, Lenartowska M, Lenartowski R. Calreticulin is required for calcium homeostasis and proper pollen tube tip growth in Petunia. PLANTA 2017; 245:909-926. [PMID: 28078426 PMCID: PMC5391374 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-017-2649-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
MAIN CONCLUSION Calreticulin is involved in stabilization of the tip-focused Ca 2+ gradient and the actin cytoskeleton arrangement and function that is required for several key processes driving Petunia pollen tube tip growth. Although the precise mechanism is unclear, stabilization of a tip-focused calcium (Ca2+) gradient seems to be critical for pollen germination and pollen tube growth. We hypothesize that calreticulin (CRT), a Ca2+-binding/buffering chaperone typically residing in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of eukaryotic cells, is an excellent candidate to fulfill this role. We previously showed that in Petunia pollen tubes growing in vitro, CRT is translated on ER membrane-bound ribosomes that are abundant in the subapical zone of the tube, where CRT's Ca2+-buffering and chaperone activities might be particularly required. Here, we sought to determine the function of CRT using small interfering RNA (siRNA) to, for the first time in pollen tubes growing in vitro, knockdown expression of a gene. We demonstrate that siRNA-mediated post-transcriptional silencing of Petunia hybrida CRT gene (PhCRT) expression strongly impairs pollen tube growth, cytoplasmic zonation, actin cytoskeleton organization, and the tip-focused Ca2+ gradient. Moreover, reduction of CRT alters the localization and disturbs the structure of the ER in abnormally elongating pollen tubes. Finally, cytoplasmic streaming is inhibited, and most of the pollen tubes rupture. Our data clearly show an interplay between CRT, Ca2+ gradient, actin-dependent cytoplasmic streaming, organelle positioning, and vesicle trafficking during pollen tube elongation. Thus, we suggest that CRT functions in Petunia pollen tube growth by stabilizing Ca2+ homeostasis and acting as a chaperone to assure quality control of glycoproteins passing through the ER.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Suwińska
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Piotr Wasąg
- Laboratory of Isotope and Instrumental Analysis, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Przemysław Zakrzewski
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Marta Lenartowska
- Laboratory of Developmental Biology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Robert Lenartowski
- Laboratory of Isotope and Instrumental Analysis, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|