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Song LJ, Sui RX, Wang J, Miao Q, He Y, Yin JJ, An J, Ding ZB, Han QX, Wang Q, Yu JZ, Xiao BG, Ma CG. Targeting the differentiation of astrocytes by Bilobalide in the treatment of Parkinson's disease model. Int J Neurosci 2024; 134:274-291. [PMID: 36037147 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2022.2100778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Background: The etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD), a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disease, is multifactorial but not fully unknown. Until now, no drug has been proven to have neuroprotective or neuroregenerative effects in patients with PD. Objectives: To observe the therapeutic potential of Bilobalide (BB), a constituent of ginkgo biloba, in MPTP-induced PD model, and explore its possible mechanisms of action. Material and Methods: Mice were randomly divided into three groups: healthy group, MPTP group and MPTP + BB group. PD-related phenotypes were induced by intraperitoneal injection of MPTP into male C57BL/6 mice, and BB (40 mg/kg/day) was intraperitoneally given for 7 consecutive days at the end of modeling. The injection of saline was set up as the control in a similar manner. Results: BB induced M2 polarization of microglia, accompanied by inhibition of neuroinflammation in the brain. Simultaneously, BB promoted the expression of BDNF in astrocytes and neurons, and expression of GDNF in neurons. Most interestingly, BB enhanced the formation of GFAP+ astrocytes expressing nestin, Brn2 and Ki67, as well as the transformation of GFAP+ astrocytes expressing tyrosine hydroxylase around subventricular zone, providing experimental evidence that BB could promote the conversion of astrocytes into TH+ dopamine neurons in vivo and in vitro. Conclusions: These results suggest the natural product BB may utilize multiple pathways to modify degenerative process of TH+ neurons, revealing an exciting opportunity for novel neuroprotective therapeutics. However, its multi-target and important mechanisms need to be further explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Juan Song
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Ruo-Xuan Sui
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
- Academy of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Wang
- The Department of Neurology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Qiang Miao
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yan He
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jun-Jun Yin
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jun An
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Zhi-Bin Ding
- The Department of Neurology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Qing-Xian Han
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Qing Wang
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jie-Zhong Yu
- The NO. 1 Affiliated Hospital/Institute of Brain Science, Shanxi Datong University, Datong, China
| | - Bao-Guo Xiao
- Institute of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cun-Gen Ma
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
- The Department of Neurology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
- The NO. 1 Affiliated Hospital/Institute of Brain Science, Shanxi Datong University, Datong, China
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Syed SB, Ahmet I, Chakir K, Morrell CH, Arany PR, Lakatta EG. Photobiomodulation therapy mitigates cardiovascular aging and improves survival. Lasers Surg Med 2023; 55:278-293. [PMID: 36821717 PMCID: PMC10084725 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.23644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Photobiomodulation (PBM) therapy, a form of low-dose light therapy, has been noted to be effective in several age-associated chronic diseases such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. Here, we examined the effects of PBM therapy on age-associated cardiovascular changes in a mouse model of accelerated cardiac aging. METHODS Fourteen months old Adenylyl cyclase type VIII (AC8) overexpressing transgenic mice (n = 8) and their wild-type (WT) littermates (n = 8) were treated with daily exposure to Near-Infrared Light (850 nm) at 25 mW/cm2 for 2 min each weekday for a total dose of 1 Einstein (4.5 p.J/cm2 or fluence 3 J/cm2 ) and compared to untreated controls over an 8-month period. PBM therapy was administered for 3.5 months (Early Treatment period), paused, due to Covid-19 restrictions for the following 3 months, and restarted again for 1.5 months. Serial echocardiography and gait analyses were performed at monthly intervals, and serum TGF-β1 levels were assessed following sacrifice. RESULTS During the Early Treatment period PBM treatments: reduced the age-associated increases in left ventricular (LV) mass in both genotypes (p = 0.0003), reduced the LV end-diastolic volume (EDV) in AC8 (p = 0.04); and reduced the left atrial dimension in both genotypes (p = 0.02). PBM treatments substantially increased the LV ejection fraction (p = 0.03), reduced the aortic wall stiffness (p = 0.001), and improved gait symmetry, an index of neuro-muscular coordination (p = 0.005). The effects of PBM treatments, measured following the pause, persisted. Total TGF-β1 levels were significantly increased in circulation (serum) in AC8 following PBM treatments (p = 0.01). We observed a striking increase in cumulative survival in PBM-treated AC8 mice (100%; p = 0.01) compared to untreated AC8 mice (43%). CONCLUSION PBM treatment mitigated age-associated cardiovascular remodeling and reduced cardiac function, improved neuromuscular coordination, and increased longevity in an experimental animal model. These responses correlate with increased TGF-β1 in circulation. Future mechanistic and dose optimization studies are necessary to assess these anti-aging effects of PBM, and validation in future controlled human studies is required for effective clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ismayil Ahmet
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Sciences, NIA, NIH, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Khalid Chakir
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Sciences, NIA, NIH, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Praveen R Arany
- Oral Biology, Surgery, and Biomedical Engineering, University of Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Edward G Lakatta
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Sciences, NIA, NIH, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Peotter JL, Pustova I, Lettman MM, Shatadal S, Bradberry MM, Winter-Reed AD, Charan M, Sharkey EE, Alvin JR, Bren AM, Oie AK, Chapman ER, Salamat MS, Audhya A. TFG regulates secretory and endosomal sorting pathways in neurons to promote their activity and maintenance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2210649119. [PMID: 36161950 PMCID: PMC9546632 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2210649119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular pathways that intrinsically regulate neuronal maintenance are poorly understood, but rare pathogenic mutations that underlie neurodegenerative disease can offer important insights into the mechanisms that facilitate lifelong neuronal function. Here, we leverage a rat model to demonstrate directly that the TFG p.R106C variant implicated previously in complicated forms of hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) underlies progressive spastic paraparesis with accompanying ventriculomegaly and thinning of the corpus callosum, consistent with disease phenotypes identified in adolescent patients. Analyses of primary cortical neurons obtained from CRISPR-Cas9-edited animals reveal a kinetic delay in biosynthetic secretory protein transport from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in agreement with prior induced pluripotent stem cell-based studies. Moreover, we identify an unexpected role for TFG in the trafficking of Rab4A-positive recycling endosomes specifically within axons and dendrites. Impaired TFG function compromises the transport of at least a subset of endosomal cargoes, which we show results in down-regulated inhibitory receptor signaling that may contribute to excitation-inhibition imbalances. In contrast, the morphology and trafficking of other organelles, including mitochondria and lysosomes, are unaffected by the TFG p.R106C mutation. Our findings demonstrate a multifaceted role for TFG in secretory and endosomal protein sorting that is unique to cells of the central nervous system and highlight the importance of these pathways to maintenance of corticospinal tract motor neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L. Peotter
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Iryna Pustova
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Molly M. Lettman
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Shalini Shatadal
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Mazdak M. Bradberry
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Allison D. Winter-Reed
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Maya Charan
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Erin E. Sharkey
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - James R. Alvin
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Alyssa M. Bren
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Annika K. Oie
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Edwin R. Chapman
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
- HHMI, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705
| | - M. Shahriar Salamat
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
| | - Anjon Audhya
- Department of Biomolecular Chemistry, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705
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4
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Liu Q, Zhang G, Ji Z, Lin H. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of spastin in neural development and disease (Review). Int J Mol Med 2021; 48:218. [PMID: 34664680 PMCID: PMC8547542 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2021.5051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Spastin is a microtubule (MT)‑severing enzyme identified from mutations of hereditary spastic paraplegia in 1999 and extensive studies indicate its vital role in various cellular activities. In the past two decades, efforts have been made to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms of how spastin is linked to neural development and disease. Recent studies on spastin have unraveled the mechanistic processes of its MT‑severing activity and revealed that spastin acts as an MT amplifier to mediate its remodeling, thus providing valuable insight into the molecular roles of spastin under physiological conditions. In addition, recent research has revealed multiple novel molecular mechanisms of spastin in cellular biological pathways, including endoplasmic reticulum shaping, calcium trafficking, fatty acid trafficking, as well as endosomal fission and trafficking. These processes are closely involved in axonal and dendritic development and maintenance. The current review presents recent biological advances regarding the molecular mechanisms of spastin at the cellular level and provides insight into how it affects neural development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuling Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, P.R. China
| | - Guowei Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, P.R. China
| | - Zhisheng Ji
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, P.R. China
| | - Hongsheng Lin
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510630, P.R. China
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5
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ACAD10 protein expression and Neurobehavioral assessment of Acad10-deficient mice. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242445. [PMID: 33301490 PMCID: PMC7728233 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase 10 (Acad10)-deficient mice develop impaired glucose tolerance, peripheral insulin resistance, and abnormal weight gain. In addition, they exhibit biochemical features of deficiencies of fatty acid oxidation, such as accumulation of metabolites consistent with abnormal mitochondrial energy metabolism and fasting induced rhabdomyolysis. ACAD10 has significant expression in mouse brain, unlike other acyl-CoA dehydrogenases (ACADs) involved in fatty acid oxidation. The presence of ACAD10 in human tissues was determined using immunohistochemical staining. To characterize the effect of ACAD10 deficiency on the brain, micro-MRI and neurobehavioral evaluations were performed. Acad10-deficient mouse behavior was examined using open field testing and DigiGait analysis for changes in general activity as well as indices of gait, respectively. ACAD10 protein was shown to colocalize to mitochondria and peroxisomes in lung, muscle, kidney, and pancreas human tissue. Acad10-deficient mice demonstrated subtle behavioral abnormalities, which included reduced activity and increased time in the arena perimeter in the open field test. Mutant animals exhibited brake and propulsion metrics similar to those of control animals, which indicates normal balance, stability of gait, and the absence of significant motor impairment. The lack of evidence for motor impairment combined with avoidance of the center of an open field arena and reduced vertical and horizontal exploration are consistent with a phenotype characterized by elevated anxiety. These results implicate ACAD10 function in normal mouse behavior, which suggests a novel role for ACAD10 in brain metabolism.
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6
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Connell JW, Allison RJ, Rodger CE, Pearson G, Zlamalova E, Reid E. ESCRT-III-associated proteins and spastin inhibit protrudin-dependent polarised membrane traffic. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 77:2641-2658. [PMID: 31587092 PMCID: PMC7320071 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-019-03313-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding the microtubule severing ATPase spastin are the most frequent cause of hereditary spastic paraplegia, a genetic condition characterised by length-dependent axonal degeneration. Here, we show that HeLa cells lacking spastin and embryonic fibroblasts from a spastin knock-in mouse model become highly polarised and develop cellular protrusions. In HeLa cells, this phenotype was rescued by wild-type spastin, but not by forms unable to sever microtubules or interact with endosomal ESCRT-III proteins. Cells lacking the spastin-interacting ESCRT-III-associated proteins IST1 or CHMP1B also developed protrusions. The protrusion phenotype required protrudin, a RAB-interacting protein that interacts with spastin and localises to ER-endosome contact sites, where it promotes KIF5-dependent endosomal motility to protrusions. Consistent with this, the protrusion phenotype in cells lacking spastin also required KIF5. Lack or mutation of spastin resulted in functional consequences for receptor traffic of a pathway implicated in HSP, as Bone Morphogenetic Protein receptor distribution became polarised. Our results, therefore, identify a novel role for ESCRT-III proteins and spastin in regulating polarised membrane traffic.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Connell
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, The Keith Peters Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
- Alzheimer's Research, Cambridge, UK
| | - Rachel J Allison
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, The Keith Peters Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Catherine E Rodger
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, The Keith Peters Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Guy Pearson
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, The Keith Peters Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Eliska Zlamalova
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, The Keith Peters Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Evan Reid
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, The Keith Peters Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK.
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7
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Kwok A, Rosas S, Bateman TA, Livingston E, Smith TL, Moore J, Zawieja DC, Hampton T, Mao XW, Delp MD, Willey JS. Altered rodent gait characteristics after ~35 days in orbit aboard the International Space Station. LIFE SCIENCES IN SPACE RESEARCH 2020; 24:9-17. [PMID: 31987483 DOI: 10.1016/j.lssr.2019.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The long-term adaptations to microgravity and other spaceflight challenges within the confines of a spacecraft, and readaptations to weight-bearing upon reaching a destination, are unclear. While post-flight gait change in astronauts have been well documented and reflect multi-system deficits, no data from rodents have been collected. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate gait changes in response to spaceflight. A prospective collection of gait data was collected on 3 groups of mice: those who spent~35 days in orbit (FLIGHT) aboard the International Space Station (ISS); a ground-based control with the same habitat conditions as ISS (Ground Control; GC); and a vivarium control with typical rodent housing conditions (VIV). Pre-flight and post-flight gait measurements were conducted utilizing an optimized and portable gait analysis system (DigiGait, Mouse Specifics, Inc). The total data acquisition time for gait patterns of FLIGHT and control mice was 1.5-5 min/mouse, allowing all 20 mice per group to be assessed in less than an hour. Patterns of longitudinal gait changes were observed in the hind limbs and the forelimbs of the FLIGHT mice after ~35 days in orbit; few differences were observed in gait characteristics within the GC and VIV controls from the initial to the final gait assessment, and between groups. For FLIGHT mice, 12 out of 18 of the evaluated gait characteristics in the hind limbs were significantly changed, including: stride width variability; stride length and variance; stride, swing, and stance duration; paw angle and area at peak stance; and step angle, among others. Gait characteristics that decreased included stride frequency, and others. Moreover, numerous forelimb gait characteristics in the FLIGHT mice were changed at post-flight measures relative to pre-flight. This rapid DigiGait gait measurement tool and customized spaceflight protocol is useful for providing preliminary insight into how spaceflight could affect multiple systems in rodents in which deficits are reflected by altered gait characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy Kwok
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Samuel Rosas
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Ted A Bateman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Eric Livingston
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Thomas L Smith
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Joseph Moore
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - David C Zawieja
- Department of Medical Physiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Tom Hampton
- Mouse Specifics, Framingham, MA, United States
| | - Xiao W Mao
- Department of Basic Sciences, Division of Biomedical Engineering Sciences (BMES), Loma Linda University School of Medicine and Medical Center, Loma Linda, CA, United States
| | - Michael D Delp
- Department of Nutrition, Food and Exercise Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| | - Jeffrey S Willey
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States.
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8
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Complexity of Generating Mouse Models to Study the Upper Motor Neurons: Let Us Shift Focus from Mice to Neurons. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20163848. [PMID: 31394733 PMCID: PMC6720674 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20163848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor neuron circuitry is one of the most elaborate circuitries in our body, which ensures voluntary and skilled movement that requires cognitive input. Therefore, both the cortex and the spinal cord are involved. The cortex has special importance for motor neuron diseases, in which initiation and modulation of voluntary movement is affected. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is defined by the progressive degeneration of both the upper and lower motor neurons, whereas hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) and primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) are characterized mainly by the loss of upper motor neurons. In an effort to reveal the cellular and molecular basis of neuronal degeneration, numerous model systems are generated, and mouse models are no exception. However, there are many different levels of complexities that need to be considered when developing mouse models. Here, we focus our attention to the upper motor neurons, which are one of the most challenging neuron populations to study. Since mice and human differ greatly at a species level, but the cells/neurons in mice and human share many common aspects of cell biology, we offer a solution by focusing our attention to the affected neurons to reveal the complexities of diseases at a cellular level and to improve translational efforts.
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9
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Abbas W, Masip Rodo D. Computer Methods for Automatic Locomotion and Gesture Tracking in Mice and Small Animals for Neuroscience Applications: A Survey. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 19:E3274. [PMID: 31349617 PMCID: PMC6696321 DOI: 10.3390/s19153274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Neuroscience has traditionally relied on manually observing laboratory animals in controlled environments. Researchers usually record animals behaving freely or in a restrained manner and then annotate the data manually. The manual annotation is not desirable for three reasons; (i) it is time-consuming, (ii) it is prone to human errors, and (iii) no two human annotators will 100% agree on annotation, therefore, it is not reproducible. Consequently, automated annotation for such data has gained traction because it is efficient and replicable. Usually, the automatic annotation of neuroscience data relies on computer vision and machine learning techniques. In this article, we have covered most of the approaches taken by researchers for locomotion and gesture tracking of specific laboratory animals, i.e. rodents. We have divided these papers into categories based upon the hardware they use and the software approach they take. We have also summarized their strengths and weaknesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waseem Abbas
- Multimedia and Telecommunications Department, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, 08018 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - David Masip Rodo
- Multimedia and Telecommunications Department, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, 08018 Barcelona, Spain
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10
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Chen C, Zhang J, Sun L, Zhang Y, Gan WB, Tang P, Yang G. Long-term imaging of dorsal root ganglia in awake behaving mice. Nat Commun 2019; 10:3087. [PMID: 31300648 PMCID: PMC6625980 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-11158-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The dorsal root ganglia (DRG) contain the somas of first-order sensory neurons critical for somatosensation. Due to technical difficulties, DRG neuronal activity in awake behaving animals remains unknown. Here, we develop a method for imaging DRG at cellular and subcellular resolution over weeks in awake mice. The method involves the installation of an intervertebral fusion mount to reduce spinal movement, and the implantation of a vertebral glass window without interfering animals' motor and sensory functions. In vivo two-photon calcium imaging shows that DRG neuronal activity is higher in awake than anesthetized animals. Immediately after plantar formalin injection, DRG neuronal activity increases substantially and this activity upsurge correlates with animals' phasic pain behavior. Repeated imaging of DRG over 5 weeks after formalin injection reveals persistent neuronal hyperactivity associated with ongoing pain. The method described here provides an important means for in vivo studies of DRG functions in sensory perception and disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Chen
- Department of Orthopaedics, Peking 301 Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Jinhui Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, the Affiliated Southeast Hospital of Xiamen University, Zhangzhou 175 Hospital, Zhangzhou, 363000, China
| | - Linlin Sun
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University, New York, 10032, NY, USA
| | - Yiling Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Peking 301 Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China
| | - Wen-Biao Gan
- Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Anesthesiology, Skirball Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, 10016, NY, USA.
| | - Peifu Tang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Peking 301 Hospital, Beijing, 100853, China.
| | - Guang Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University, New York, 10032, NY, USA.
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11
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Newton T, Allison R, Edgar JR, Lumb JH, Rodger CE, Manna PT, Rizo T, Kohl Z, Nygren AOH, Arning L, Schüle R, Depienne C, Goldberg L, Frahm C, Stevanin G, Durr A, Schöls L, Winner B, Beetz C, Reid E. Mechanistic basis of an epistatic interaction reducing age at onset in hereditary spastic paraplegia. Brain 2019; 141:1286-1299. [PMID: 29481671 PMCID: PMC5917785 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awy034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Many genetic neurological disorders exhibit variable expression within affected families, often exemplified by variations in disease age at onset. Epistatic effects (i.e. effects of modifier genes on the disease gene) may underlie this variation, but the mechanistic basis for such epistatic interactions is rarely understood. Here we report a novel epistatic interaction between SPAST and the contiguous gene DPY30, which modifies age at onset in hereditary spastic paraplegia, a genetic axonopathy. We found that patients with hereditary spastic paraplegia caused by genomic deletions of SPAST that extended into DPY30 had a significantly younger age at onset. We show that, like spastin, the protein encoded by SPAST, the DPY30 protein controls endosomal tubule fission, traffic of mannose 6-phosphate receptors from endosomes to the Golgi, and lysosomal ultrastructural morphology. We propose that additive effects on this pathway explain the reduced age at onset of hereditary spastic paraplegia in patients who are haploinsufficient for both genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Newton
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, UK
| | - Rachel Allison
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, UK
| | - James R Edgar
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Jennifer H Lumb
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, UK
| | - Catherine E Rodger
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, UK
| | - Paul T Manna
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Tania Rizo
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Zacharias Kohl
- Department of Molecular Neurology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | | | - Larissa Arning
- Department of Human Genetics, Ruhr-University, Bochum, Germany
| | - Rebecca Schüle
- Center for Neurology and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard-Karls-University, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.,German Center of Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Christel Depienne
- ICM Brain and Spine Institute, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Sorbonne Universites, UPMC Univ Paris VI UMR_S1127, Paris, France.,APHP, Genetic Department, Pitie-Salpêtrière University Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Lisa Goldberg
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Christiane Frahm
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Giovanni Stevanin
- ICM Brain and Spine Institute, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Sorbonne Universites, UPMC Univ Paris VI UMR_S1127, Paris, France.,APHP, Genetic Department, Pitie-Salpêtrière University Hospital, Paris, France.,Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Alexandra Durr
- ICM Brain and Spine Institute, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR7225, Sorbonne Universites, UPMC Univ Paris VI UMR_S1127, Paris, France.,APHP, Genetic Department, Pitie-Salpêtrière University Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Ludger Schöls
- Center for Neurology and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard-Karls-University, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.,German Center of Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Beate Winner
- Department of Molecular Neurology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuernberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Christian Beetz
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Evan Reid
- Department of Medical Genetics and Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, UK
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12
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Qiang L, Piermarini E, Baas PW. New hypothesis for the etiology of SPAST-based hereditary spastic paraplegia. Cytoskeleton (Hoboken) 2019; 76:289-297. [PMID: 31108029 DOI: 10.1002/cm.21528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Mutations of the SPAST gene are the chief cause of hereditary spastic paraplegia. Controversy exists in the medical community as to whether the etiology of the disease is haploinsufficiency or toxic gain-of-function properties of the mutant spastin proteins. In recognition of strong reasons that support each possible mechanism, here we present a novel perspective, based in part on new studies with mouse models and in part on the largest study to date on patients with the disease. We posit that haploinsufficiency does not cause the disease but makes the corticospinal tracts vulnerable to a second hit, which is usually the mutant spastin proteins but could also be proteins generated by mutations of other genes that may or may not cause the disease on their own.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Qiang
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University, College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Emanuela Piermarini
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University, College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Peter W Baas
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University, College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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13
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Qiang L, Piermarini E, Muralidharan H, Yu W, Leo L, Hennessy LE, Fernandes S, Connors T, Yates PL, Swift M, Zholudeva LV, Lane MA, Morfini G, Alexander GM, Heiman-Patterson TD, Baas PW. Hereditary spastic paraplegia: gain-of-function mechanisms revealed by new transgenic mouse. Hum Mol Genet 2019; 28:1136-1152. [PMID: 30520996 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddy419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 12/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations of the SPAST gene, which encodes the microtubule-severing protein spastin, are the most common cause of hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP). Haploinsufficiency is the prevalent opinion as to the mechanism of the disease, but gain-of-function toxicity of the mutant proteins is another possibility. Here, we report a new transgenic mouse (termed SPASTC448Y mouse) that is not haploinsufficient but expresses human spastin bearing the HSP pathogenic C448Y mutation. Expression of the mutant spastin was documented from fetus to adult, but gait defects reminiscent of HSP (not observed in spastin knockout mice) were adult onset, as is typical of human patients. Results of histological and tracer studies on the mouse are consistent with progressive dying back of corticospinal axons, which is characteristic of the disease. The C448Y-mutated spastin alters microtubule stability in a manner that is opposite to the expectations of haploinsufficiency. Neurons cultured from the mouse display deficits in organelle transport typical of axonal degenerative diseases, and these deficits were worsened by depletion of endogenous mouse spastin. These results on the SPASTC448Y mouse are consistent with a gain-of-function mechanism underlying HSP, with spastin haploinsufficiency exacerbating the toxicity of the mutant spastin proteins. These findings reveal the need for a different therapeutic approach than indicated by haploinsufficiency alone.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Laura E Hennessy
- Department of Neurology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Gerardo Morfini
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Guillermo M Alexander
- Department of Neurology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Terry D Heiman-Patterson
- Department of Neurology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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14
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Leo L, Weissmann C, Burns M, Kang M, Song Y, Qiang L, Brady ST, Baas PW, Morfini G. Mutant spastin proteins promote deficits in axonal transport through an isoform-specific mechanism involving casein kinase 2 activation. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 26:2321-2334. [PMID: 28398512 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations of various genes cause hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), a neurological disease involving dying-back degeneration of upper motor neurons. From these, mutations in the SPAST gene encoding the microtubule-severing protein spastin account for most HSP cases. Cumulative genetic and experimental evidence suggests that alterations in various intracellular trafficking events, including fast axonal transport (FAT), may contribute to HSP pathogenesis. However, the mechanisms linking SPAST mutations to such deficits remain largely unknown. Experiments presented here using isolated squid axoplasm reveal inhibition of FAT as a common toxic effect elicited by spastin proteins with different HSP mutations, independent of microtubule-binding or severing activity. Mutant spastin proteins produce this toxic effect only when presented as the tissue-specific M1 isoform, not when presented as the ubiquitously-expressed shorter M87 isoform. Biochemical and pharmacological experiments further indicate that the toxic effects of mutant M1 spastins on FAT involve casein kinase 2 (CK2) activation. In mammalian cells, expression of mutant M1 spastins, but not their mutant M87 counterparts, promotes abnormalities in the distribution of intracellular organelles that are correctable by pharmacological CK2 inhibition. Collectively, these results demonstrate isoform-specific toxic effects of mutant M1 spastin on FAT, and identify CK2 as a critical mediator of these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lanfranco Leo
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Carina Weissmann
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Matthew Burns
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Minsu Kang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, USA
| | - Yuyu Song
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, USA.,Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Liang Qiang
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Scott T Brady
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, USA
| | - Peter W Baas
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Gerardo Morfini
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, USA
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15
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Brinkmeyer-Langford CL, Rech R, Amstalden K, Kochan KJ, Hillhouse AE, Young C, Welsh CJ, Threadgill DW. Host genetic background influences diverse neurological responses to viral infection in mice. Sci Rep 2017; 7:12194. [PMID: 28939838 PMCID: PMC5610195 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-12477-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection by Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) is a model for neurological outcomes caused by virus infection because it leads to diverse neurological conditions in mice, depending on the strain infected. To extend knowledge on the heterogeneous neurological outcomes caused by TMEV and identify new models of human neurological diseases associated with antecedent infections, we analyzed the phenotypic consequences of TMEV infection in the Collaborative Cross (CC) mouse population. We evaluated 5 different CC strains for outcomes of long-term infection (3 months) and acute vs. early chronic infection (7 vs. 28 days post-infection), using neurological and behavioral phenotyping tests and histology. We correlated phenotypic observations with haplotypes of genomic regions previously linked to TMEV susceptibility to test the hypothesis that genomic diversity within CC mice results in variable disease phenotypes in response to TMEV. None of the 5 strains analyzed had a response identical to that of any other CC strain or inbred strain for which prior data are available, indicating that strains of the CC can produce novel models of neurological disease. Thus, CC strains can be a powerful resource for studying how viral infection can cause different neurological outcomes depending on host genetic background.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Raquel Rech
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
| | - Katia Amstalden
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
| | - Kelli J Kochan
- Texas A&M Institute for Genomic Sciences and Society, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
| | - Andrew E Hillhouse
- Texas A&M Institute for Genomic Sciences and Society, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
| | - Colin Young
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
| | - C Jane Welsh
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
| | - David W Threadgill
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
- Texas A&M Institute for Genomic Sciences and Society, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA
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16
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Allison R, Edgar JR, Pearson G, Rizo T, Newton T, Günther S, Berner F, Hague J, Connell JW, Winkler J, Lippincott-Schwartz J, Beetz C, Winner B, Reid E. Defects in ER-endosome contacts impact lysosome function in hereditary spastic paraplegia. J Cell Biol 2017; 216:1337-1355. [PMID: 28389476 PMCID: PMC5412567 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201609033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a genetically heterogeneous disease caused by mutations in many genes, including those encoding spastin, strumpellin, or REEP1. Allison et al. show that similar lysosomal phenotypes are associated with mutations in different classes of HSP proteins and suggest that defective ER–endosome contacts and endosome tubule fission may be a common cause of axon degeneration in the disease. Contacts between endosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) promote endosomal tubule fission, but the mechanisms involved and consequences of tubule fission failure are incompletely understood. We found that interaction between the microtubule-severing enzyme spastin and the ESCRT protein IST1 at ER–endosome contacts drives endosomal tubule fission. Failure of fission caused defective sorting of mannose 6-phosphate receptor, with consequently disrupted lysosomal enzyme trafficking and abnormal lysosomal morphology, including in mouse primary neurons and human stem cell–derived neurons. Consistent with a role for ER-mediated endosomal tubule fission in lysosome function, similar lysosomal abnormalities were seen in cellular models lacking the WASH complex component strumpellin or the ER morphogen REEP1. Mutations in spastin, strumpellin, or REEP1 cause hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), a disease characterized by axonal degeneration. Our results implicate failure of the ER–endosome contact process in axonopathy and suggest that coupling of ER-mediated endosomal tubule fission to lysosome function links different classes of HSP proteins, previously considered functionally distinct, into a unifying pathway for axonal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Allison
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK
| | - James R Edgar
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK
| | - Guy Pearson
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK
| | - Tania Rizo
- Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research (IZKF) Junior Research Group III and Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Research Group Neuroscience, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuernberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Timothy Newton
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK
| | - Sven Günther
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics, Jena University Hospital, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Fiamma Berner
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK
| | - Jennifer Hague
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK
| | - James W Connell
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK.,Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK
| | - Jürgen Winkler
- Department of Molecular Neurology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuernberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | | | - Christian Beetz
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Diagnostics, Jena University Hospital, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Beate Winner
- Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research (IZKF) Junior Research Group III and Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Research Group Neuroscience, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuernberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.,Institute of Human Genetics, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuernberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Evan Reid
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK .,Department of Medical Genetics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0XY, England, UK
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