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Holbrook-Smith D, Trouillon J, Sauer U. Metabolomics and Microbial Metabolism: Toward a Systematic Understanding. Annu Rev Biophys 2024; 53:41-64. [PMID: 38109374 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biophys-030722-021957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decades, our understanding of microbial metabolism has increased dramatically. Metabolomics, a family of techniques that are used to measure the quantities of small molecules in biological samples, has been central to these efforts. Advances in analytical chemistry have made it possible to measure the relative and absolute concentrations of more and more compounds with increasing levels of certainty. In this review, we highlight how metabolomics has contributed to understanding microbial metabolism and in what ways it can still be deployed to expand our systematic understanding of metabolism. To that end, we explain how metabolomics was used to (a) characterize network topologies of metabolism and its regulation networks, (b) elucidate the control of metabolic function, and (c) understand the molecular basis of higher-order phenomena. We also discuss areas of inquiry where technological advances should continue to increase the impact of metabolomics, as well as areas where our understanding is bottlenecked by other factors such as the availability of statistical and modeling frameworks that can extract biological meaning from metabolomics data.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julian Trouillon
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland;
| | - Uwe Sauer
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland;
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2
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Thangaraj S, Liu H, Kim IN, Sun J. Acclimation traits determine the macromolecular basis of harmful dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum in response to changing climate conditions. HARMFUL ALGAE 2022; 118:102313. [PMID: 36195427 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Ocean warming and acidification are expected to have profound impacts on the marine ecosystem, although the dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum is reported to be acclimated to such conditions. However, it is unknown on the transition time scale how this species physiologically adjusts their element accumulation and associated resource allocation for this process. We designed a set of experiments to examine how different culture generations (1st, 5th, and 10th) change their cell physiology, cellular quotas and macromolecular cellular contents related to functional processes in A. minutum grown with future (pCO2, 1000 ppm; 25°C) and present (pCO2, 400 ppm; 21°C) ocean conditions. The differing cell sizes and storage capacity at different generations confirmed that compared to ancestors (1st generation), acclimation cells (10th generation) gained increases in quota carbon (QC; 55%; [p < 0.05]) and quota phosphate (QP; 23% [ p < 0.05]). This variation in C:P and N:P influences was transition-specific and largely determined by phosphate-based molecules. It was observed that A. minutum was initially dependent on P molecules, which help cells act as alternative lipids for quick acclimation until N molecules resume carbon-based lipids for their long-term acclimation. Our study demonstrated that rising temperature and pCO2 concentrations in ocean may increase A. minutum based on the comprehensive analysis of different physiological modifications, including its growth, element accumulation, transformation, and functional allocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satheeswaran Thangaraj
- Institute for Advanced Marine Research, China University of Geosciences, Guangzhou, China; State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China; Department of Marine Science, Incheon National University, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Haijiao Liu
- Research Centre for Indian Ocean Ecosystem, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Il-Nam Kim
- Department of Marine Science, Incheon National University, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Jun Sun
- Institute for Advanced Marine Research, China University of Geosciences, Guangzhou, China; State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China; Research Centre for Indian Ocean Ecosystem, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China.
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3
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Dahal S, Zhao J, Yang L. Genome-scale Modeling of Metabolism and Macromolecular Expression and Their Applications. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-020-0061-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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4
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Abstract
Living systems evolve one mutation at a time, but a single mutation can alter the effect of subsequent mutations. The underlying mechanistic determinants of such epistasis are unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the physical dynamics of a biological system can generically constrain epistasis. We analyze models and experimental data on proteins and regulatory networks. In each, we find that if the long-time physical dynamics is dominated by a slow, collective mode, then the dimensionality of mutational effects is reduced. Consequently, epistatic coefficients for different combinations of mutations are no longer independent, even if individually strong. Such epistasis can be summarized as resulting from a global nonlinearity applied to an underlying linear trait, that is, as global epistasis. This constraint, in turn, reduces the ruggedness of the sequence-to-function map. By providing a generic mechanistic origin for experimentally observed global epistasis, our work suggests that slow collective physical modes can make biological systems evolvable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kabir Husain
- Department of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
| | - Arvind Murugan
- Department of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
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5
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Atitey K, Loskot P, Rees P. Elucidating effects of reaction rates on dynamics of the lac circuit in Escherichia coli. Biosystems 2018; 175:1-10. [PMID: 30447251 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2018.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Gene expression is regulated by a complex transcriptional network. It is of interest to quantify uncertainty of not knowing accurately reaction rates of underlying biochemical reactions, and to understand how they affect gene expression. Assuming a kinetic model of the lac circuit in Escherichia coli, regardless of how many reactions are involved in transcription regulation, transcription rate is shown to be the most important parameter affecting steady state production of mRNA and protein in the cell. In particular, doubling the transcription rate approximately doubles the number of mRNA synthesized at steady state for any rates of transcription inhibition and activation. On the other hand, increasing the rate of transcription inhibition by 10% reduces the average steady state count of mRNA by about 7%, whereas changes in the rate of transcription activation appear to have no such effect. Furthermore, for wide range of reaction rates in the kinetic model of the lac genetic switch considered, protein production was observed to always reach a maximum before the degradation reduces its count to zero, and this maximum was found to be always at least 27 protein molecules. Such value appears to be a fundamental structural property of genetic circuits making it very robust against changes in the internal and external conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komlan Atitey
- College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Pavel Loskot
- College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom.
| | - Paul Rees
- College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
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6
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Furusawa C, Kaneko K. Formation of dominant mode by evolution in biological systems. Phys Rev E 2018; 97:042410. [PMID: 29758752 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.97.042410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A reduction in high-dimensional phenotypic states to a few degrees of freedom is essential to understand biological systems. Here, we show evolutionary robustness causes such reduction which restricts possible phenotypic changes in response to a variety of environmental conditions. First, global protein expression changes in Escherichia coli after various environmental perturbations were shown to be proportional across components, across different types of environmental conditions. To examine if such dimension reduction is a result of evolution, we analyzed a cell model-with a huge number of components, that reproduces itself via a catalytic reaction network-and confirmed that common proportionality in the concentrations of all components is shaped through evolutionary processes. We found that the changes in concentration across all components in response to environmental and evolutionary changes are constrained to the changes along a one-dimensional major axis, within a huge-dimensional state space. On the basis of these observations, we propose a theory in which such constraints in phenotypic changes are achieved both by evolutionary robustness and plasticity and formulate this proposition in terms of dynamical systems. Accordingly, broad experimental and numerical results on phenotypic changes caused by evolution and adaptation are coherently explained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chikara Furusawa
- Quantitative Biology Center (QBiC), RIKEN, 6-2-3 Furuedai, Suita, Osaka 565-0874, Japan and Universal Biology Institute, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Kunihiko Kaneko
- Research Center for Complex Systems Biology, Universal Biology Institute, University of Tokyo, 3-8-1 Komaba, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan
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7
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Yang L, Yurkovich JT, King ZA, Palsson BO. Modeling the multi-scale mechanisms of macromolecular resource allocation. Curr Opin Microbiol 2018; 45:8-15. [PMID: 29367175 PMCID: PMC6419967 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2018.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
As microbes face changing environments, they dynamically allocate macromolecular resources to produce a particular phenotypic state. Broad 'omics' data sets have revealed several interesting phenomena regarding how the proteome is allocated under differing conditions, but the functional consequences of these states and how they are achieved remain open questions. Various types of multi-scale mathematical models have been used to elucidate the genetic basis for systems-level adaptations. In this review, we outline several different strategies by which microbes accomplish resource allocation and detail how mathematical models have aided in our understanding of these processes. Ultimately, such modeling efforts have helped elucidate the principles of proteome allocation and hold promise for further discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Yang
- Bioengineering Department, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| | - James T Yurkovich
- Bioengineering Department, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Zachary A King
- Bioengineering Department, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Bernhard O Palsson
- Bioengineering Department, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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8
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Raven JA. The potential effect of low cell osmolarity on cell function through decreased concentration of enzyme substrates. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2018; 69:4667-4673. [PMID: 29992331 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ery254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Some freshwater algae have lower (<130 osmol m-3) intracellular osmolarities than most others (>180 osmol m-3). Low osmolarities are related to the presence of flagella and the low energy cost of active water efflux following downhill water influx unconstrained by cell walls covering the plasmalemma, and the low resource cost of cell wall synthesis with the same mechanical degree of safety. One consequence of low intracellular osmolarity is limitation on the concentration of metabolites, that is, substrates and products of enzyme activity. Models of the flux through metabolic pathways, and hence the specific growth rate, using steady-state concentrations of enzymes and metabolites have involved organisms with intracellular metabolite osmolarities >280 osmol m-3, where the metabolite concentrations are much greater than the total osmolarity of some freshwater algae. Since the protein concentration (mol m-3) in the cells and the specific growth rates of freshwater cells with low and with higher intracellular osmolarity are highly similar, the models of trade-offs between enzyme and metabolite concentrations for cells with high intracellular osmolarity need modification for cells with low intracellular osmolarity. The soluble free-radical scavenger ascorbate can constitute as little as 0.2% of the low intracellular metabolite concentration (mol m-3) of low-intracellular-osmolarity cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Raven
- Division of Plant Science, University of Dundee, The James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee, UK
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley (Perth), WA, Australia
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9
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Freddolino PL, Yang J, Momen-Roknabadi A, Tavazoie S. Stochastic tuning of gene expression enables cellular adaptation in the absence of pre-existing regulatory circuitry. eLife 2018; 7:e31867. [PMID: 29620524 PMCID: PMC5919758 DOI: 10.7554/elife.31867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells adapt to familiar changes in their environment by activating predefined regulatory programs that establish adaptive gene expression states. These hard-wired pathways, however, may be inadequate for adaptation to environments never encountered before. Here, we reveal evidence for an alternative mode of gene regulation that enables adaptation to adverse conditions without relying on external sensory information or genetically predetermined cis-regulation. Instead, individual genes achieve optimal expression levels through a stochastic search for improved fitness. By focusing on improving the overall health of the cell, the proposed stochastic tuning mechanism discovers global gene expression states that are fundamentally new and yet optimized for novel environments. We provide experimental evidence for stochastic tuning in the adaptation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to laboratory-engineered environments that are foreign to its native gene-regulatory network. Stochastic tuning operates locally at individual gene promoters, and its efficacy is modulated by perturbations to chromatin modification machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter L Freddolino
- Department of Systems BiologyColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiophysicsColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
| | - Jamie Yang
- Department of Systems BiologyColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiophysicsColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
| | - Amir Momen-Roknabadi
- Department of Systems BiologyColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiophysicsColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
| | - Saeed Tavazoie
- Department of Systems BiologyColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiophysicsColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
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10
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Garcia NS, Sexton J, Riggins T, Brown J, Lomas MW, Martiny AC. High Variability in Cellular Stoichiometry of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Within Classes of Marine Eukaryotic Phytoplankton Under Sufficient Nutrient Conditions. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:543. [PMID: 29636735 PMCID: PMC5880891 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Current hypotheses suggest that cellular elemental stoichiometry of marine eukaryotic phytoplankton such as the ratios of cellular carbon:nitrogen:phosphorus (C:N:P) vary between phylogenetic groups. To investigate how phylogenetic structure, cell volume, growth rate, and temperature interact to affect the cellular elemental stoichiometry of marine eukaryotic phytoplankton, we examined the C:N:P composition in 30 isolates across 7 classes of marine phytoplankton that were grown with a sufficient supply of nutrients and nitrate as the nitrogen source. The isolates covered a wide range in cell volume (5 orders of magnitude), growth rate (<0.01–0.9 d−1), and habitat temperature (2–24°C). Our analysis indicates that C:N:P is highly variable, with statistical model residuals accounting for over half of the total variance and no relationship between phylogeny and elemental stoichiometry. Furthermore, our data indicated that variability in C:P, N:P, and C:N within Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) was as high as that among all of the isolates that we examined. In addition, a linear statistical model identified a positive relationship between diatom cell volume and C:P and N:P. Among all of the isolates that we examined, the statistical model identified temperature as a significant factor, consistent with the temperature-dependent translation efficiency model, but temperature only explained 5% of the total statistical model variance. While some of our results support data from previous field studies, the high variability of elemental ratios within Bacillariophyceae contradicts previous work that suggests that this cosmopolitan group of microalgae has consistently low C:P and N:P ratios in comparison with other groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan S Garcia
- Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Julie Sexton
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, National Center for Marine Algae and Microbiota, East Boothbay, ME, United States
| | - Tracey Riggins
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, National Center for Marine Algae and Microbiota, East Boothbay, ME, United States
| | - Jeff Brown
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, National Center for Marine Algae and Microbiota, East Boothbay, ME, United States
| | - Michael W Lomas
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, National Center for Marine Algae and Microbiota, East Boothbay, ME, United States
| | - Adam C Martiny
- Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
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11
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Zuñiga C, Levering J, Antoniewicz MR, Guarnieri MT, Betenbaugh MJ, Zengler K. Predicting Dynamic Metabolic Demands in the Photosynthetic Eukaryote Chlorella vulgaris. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 176:450-462. [PMID: 28951490 PMCID: PMC5761767 DOI: 10.1104/pp.17.00605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Phototrophic organisms exhibit a highly dynamic proteome, adapting their biomass composition in response to diurnal light/dark cycles and nutrient availability. Here, we used experimentally determined biomass compositions over the course of growth to determine and constrain the biomass objective function (BOF) in a genome-scale metabolic model of Chlorella vulgaris UTEX 395 over time. Changes in the BOF, which encompasses all metabolites necessary to produce biomass, influence the state of the metabolic network thus directly affecting predictions. Simulations using dynamic BOFs predicted distinct proteome demands during heterotrophic or photoautotrophic growth. Model-driven analysis of extracellular nitrogen concentrations and predicted nitrogen uptake rates revealed an intracellular nitrogen pool, which contains 38% of the total nitrogen provided in the medium for photoautotrophic and 13% for heterotrophic growth. Agreement between flux and gene expression trends was determined by statistical comparison. Accordance between predicted flux trends and gene expression trends was found for 65% of multisubunit enzymes and 75% of allosteric reactions. Reactions with the highest agreement between simulations and experimental data were associated with energy metabolism, terpenoid biosynthesis, fatty acids, nucleotides, and amino acid metabolism. Furthermore, predicted flux distributions at each time point were compared with gene expression data to gain new insights into intracellular compartmentalization, specifically for transporters. A total of 103 genes related to internal transport reactions were identified and added to the updated model of C. vulgaris, iCZ946, thus increasing our knowledgebase by 10% for this model green alga.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristal Zuñiga
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0760
| | - Jennifer Levering
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0760
| | - Maciek R Antoniewicz
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Metabolic Engineering and Systems Biology Laboratory, University of Delaware, 150 Academy Street, Newark, Delaware 19716
| | - Michael T Guarnieri
- National Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401
| | - Michael J Betenbaugh
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21218
| | - Karsten Zengler
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0760
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12
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Lessons on enzyme kinetics from quantitative proteomics. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2017; 46:81-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2017.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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13
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Kochanowski K, Gerosa L, Brunner SF, Christodoulou D, Nikolaev YV, Sauer U. Few regulatory metabolites coordinate expression of central metabolic genes in Escherichia coli. Mol Syst Biol 2017; 13:903. [PMID: 28049137 PMCID: PMC5293157 DOI: 10.15252/msb.20167402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcription networks consist of hundreds of transcription factors with thousands of often overlapping target genes. While we can reliably measure gene expression changes, we still understand relatively little why expression changes the way it does. How does a coordinated response emerge in such complex networks and how many input signals are necessary to achieve it? Here, we unravel the regulatory program of gene expression in Escherichia coli central carbon metabolism with more than 30 known transcription factors. Using a library of fluorescent transcriptional reporters, we comprehensively quantify the activity of central metabolic promoters in 26 environmental conditions. The expression patterns were dominated by growth rate‐dependent global regulation for most central metabolic promoters in concert with highly condition‐specific activation for only few promoters. Using an approximate mathematical description of promoter activity, we dissect the contribution of global and specific transcriptional regulation. About 70% of the total variance in promoter activity across conditions was explained by global transcriptional regulation. Correlating the remaining specific transcriptional regulation of each promoter with the cell's metabolome response across the same conditions identified potential regulatory metabolites. Remarkably, cyclic AMP, fructose‐1,6‐bisphosphate, and fructose‐1‐phosphate alone explained most of the specific transcriptional regulation through their interaction with the two major transcription factors Crp and Cra. Thus, a surprisingly simple regulatory program that relies on global transcriptional regulation and input from few intracellular metabolites appears to be sufficient to coordinate E. coli central metabolism and explain about 90% of the experimentally observed transcription changes in 100 genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl Kochanowski
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Life Science Zurich PhD Program on Systems Biology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Luca Gerosa
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Life Science Zurich PhD Program on Systems Biology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simon F Brunner
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dimitris Christodoulou
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Life Science Zurich PhD Program on Systems Biology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yaroslav V Nikolaev
- Institute of Molecular Biology & Biophysics, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Uwe Sauer
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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