Vitamin Variation in Capsicum Spp. Provides Opportunities to Improve Nutritional Value of Human Diets

Influence of a double-stage solar tunnel dryer on the preservation of quality characteristics and the Modelling of colour variations in red chili peppers

In this work, the influence of two-stage solar tunnel drying on the preservation of quality attributes of both chili pepper varieties, Mareko Fana (MF) and Bako Local (BL), was studied. Both varieties were dried in different drying modalities, i.e. solar tunnel and open sun drying. The quality attributes were evaluated during the drying process using FTIR and spectrophotometry techniques. Different colour evolution models were implemented and a suitable model was selected. The results showed that after drying of the Mareko Fana chili variety, the lightness retention was found in the range of 81 %-89 %, the redness retention between 25 % and 42 % and the yellowness retention between 14 % and 38 %. For the Bako Local variety, the values were in the range of 78 %-82 %, 42 %-60 % and 36 %-55 %, respectively. The first order model gave a higher correlation coefficient (R2 > 0.96), which indicated the suitability of the model for predicting the color variation for both varieties. The volatile aromatic compounds in the chili peppers were greatly lost during open sun drying, while solar tunnel drying maintained these compounds for both varieties. However, during the solar tunnel drying process, a significant amount of alkyl halides or alkyl-chlorides were lost. The amount of dihydrocapsaicin and capsaicin from the chili peppers ranged from 10,172 μg/kg to 16,313 μg/kg and 16,676 μg/kg to 27,189 μg/kg for both dihydrocapsaicin and capsaicin, respectively. In tunnel, open-air, and uncontrolled open-air solar drying, the MF chili variety lost copsaicinoid content by 3.4 %, 14.8 %, and 38.3 %, respectively; in the BL variety, comparable losses were 1.8 %, 4.4 %, and 13.6 %. A minimum loss of ascorbic acids was recorded during solar tunnel drying. The results showed that well-designed double stage solar tunnel dryers are important for effective drying processes that preserve quality attributes of the chili pepper.

Piquin chili, a wild spice: natural variation in nutraceutical contents

The piquin chili is a wild spice widely consumed from the South United States to Central America and stands out as a source of flavonoids, essential metabolites with antioxidant properties. The concentrations of flavonoids, carotenoids, and capsaicinoids vary according to regions, maturity stages, and ripening processes. These compounds, which are known for their health benefits and industrial applications, highlight the importance of identifying ideal environmental conditions for collecting fruits with the highest contents. Comprehensive studies of the piquin chili are essential for understanding its properties for the benefit of consumers. This approach fortifies trade, contributes to resource conservation, and advances cultivated chili production.

Widely Targeted Metabolomics Reveals Metabolite Diversity in Jalapeño and Serrano Chile Peppers (Capsicum annuum L.)

Chile peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) are good sources of vitamins and minerals that can be included in the diet to mitigate nutritional deficiencies. Metabolomics examines the metabolites involved in biological pathways to understand the genes related to complex phenotypes such as the nutritional quality traits. The current study surveys the different metabolites present in jalapeño ('NuMex Pumpkin Spice') and serrano ('NuMex LotaLutein') type chile peppers grown in New Mexico using a widely targeted metabolomics approach, with the 'NuMex LotaLutein' as control. A total of 1088 different metabolites were detected, where 345 metabolites were differentially expressed; 203 (59%) were downregulated and 142 (41%) were upregulated (i.e., relative metabolite content is higher in 'NuMex Pumpkin Spice'). The upregulated metabolites comprised mostly of phenolic acids (42), flavonoids (22), and organic acids (13). Analyses of principal component (PC) and orthogonal partial least squares demonstrated clustering based on cultivars, where at least 60% of variation was attributed to the first two PCs. Pathway annotation identified 89 metabolites which are involved in metabolic pathways and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. Altogether, metabolomics provided insights into the different metabolites present which can be targeted for breeding and selection towards the improvement of nutritional quality traits in Capsicum.

Small Heat Shock Protein (sHSP) Gene Family from Sweet Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Fruits: Involvement in Ripening and Modulation by Nitric Oxide (NO)

Small heat shock proteins (sHSPs) are usually upregulated in plants under diverse environmental stresses. These proteins have been suggested to function as molecular chaperones to safeguard other proteins from stress-induced damage. The ripening of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) fruit involves important phenotypic, physiological, and biochemical changes, which have associated endogenous physiological nitro-oxidative stress, but they can also be significantly affected by environmental conditions, such as temperature. Based on the available pepper genome, a total of 41 sHSP genes were identified in this work, and their distributions in the 12 pepper chromosomes were determined. Among these genes, only 19 sHSP genes were found in the transcriptome (RNA-Seq) of sweet pepper fruits reported previously. This study aims to analyze how these 19 sHSP genes present in the transcriptome of sweet pepper fruits are modulated during ripening and after treatment of fruits with nitric oxide (NO) gas. The time-course expression analysis of these genes during fruit ripening showed that 6 genes were upregulated; another 7 genes were downregulated, whereas 6 genes were not significantly affected. Furthermore, NO treatment triggered the upregulation of 7 sHSP genes and the downregulation of 3 sHSP genes, whereas 9 genes were unchanged. These data indicate the diversification of sHSP genes in pepper plants and, considering that sHSPs are important in stress tolerance, the observed changes in sHSP expression support that pepper fruit ripening has an associated process of physiological nitro-oxidative stress, such as it was previously proposed.

The Effect of the Varietal Type, Ripening Stage, and Growing Conditions on the Content and Profile of Sugars and Capsaicinoids in Capsicum Peppers

Peppers (Capsicum sp.) are used both as vegetables and/or spice and their fruits are used in a plethora of recipes, contributing to their flavor and aroma. Among flavor-related traits, pungency (capsaicinoids) and lately volatiles have been considered the most important factors. However, the knowledge of sugars is low, probably due to the fact peppers were historically considered tasteless. Here, using HPLC, we studied the content and profile of major sugars and capsaicinoids in a comprehensive collection of varietal types (genotype, G), grown under different growing systems (environment, E) in two years (Y) and considered the two main ripening stages (R). We found a major contribution to the ripening stage and the genotype in total and individual sugars and capsaicinoids. The year was also significant in most cases, as well as the G × E and G × Y interactions, while the growing system was low or nil. Ripening increased considerably in sugars (from 19.6 to 36.1 g kg^-1 on average) and capsaicinoids (from 97 to 142 mg kg^-1 on average), with remarkable differences among varieties. Moreover, sugars in fully ripe fruits ranged between 7.5 and 38.5 g kg^-1 in glucose and between 5.2 and 34.3 g kg^-1 in fructose, and several accessions reached total sugars between 40 and 70 g kg^-1, similar to tomatoes. The results reveal the importance of the genotype and the ripening for these traits, particularly sugars, which should be considered key for the improvement of taste and flavor in peppers.

A Pan-Global Study of Bacterial Leaf Spot of Chilli Caused by Xanthomonas spp

Bacterial Leaf Spot (BLS) is a serious bacterial disease of chilli (Capsicum spp.) caused by at least four different Xanthomonas biotypes: X. euvesicatoria pv. euvesicatoria, X. euvesicatoria pv. perforans, X. hortorum pv. gardneri, and X. vesicatoria. Symptoms include black lesions and yellow halos on the leaves and fruits, resulting in reports of up to 66% losses due to unsalable and damaged fruits. BLS pathogens are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions. Xanthomonas is able to survive in seeds and crop residues for short periods, leading to the infections in subsequent crops. The pathogen can be detected using several techniques, but largely via a combination of traditional and molecular approaches. Conventional detection is based on microscopic and culture observations, while a suite of Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) assays are available. Management of BLS is challenging due to the broad genetic diversity of the pathogens, a lack of resilient host resistance, and poor efficacy of chemical control. Some biological control agents have been reported, including bacteriophage deployment. Incorporating stable host resistance is a critical component in ongoing integrated management for BLS. This paper reviews the current status of BLS of chilli, including its distribution, pathogen profiles, diagnostic options, disease management, and the pursuit of plant resistance.

Convection Drying Influence on Thermo-Physical Properties, Bioactive Substances, Color and Texture Profile of Red Pepper (Capsicum Spp)

This work aimed to study the effect of convection drying on bioactive substances and on the texture profile of red pepper. Four mathematical models were used to model the drying kinetics, as a function of the temperature and the thickness of slices. These models are largely in agreement with experimental data. Effective diffusivity, Arrhenius constant, activation energy and thermal properties changed with temperature of dry process. The two varieties of pepper used in this work demonstrated a very high degree of spiciness (144799.37-160899.37 SU). This property is related to the high contents of capsaicin (39.60-44.01 mg/g) and dihydrocapsaicin (32.33-35.95 mg/g). Our results revealed that brittleness, hardness 1 and 2, firmness, chewiness, gumminess appearance and Young’s modulus are very important attributes in determining the textural profile of dried red pepper. Also, drying causes a strong degradation of natural pigments of red pepper and consequently decreases attractiveness of the texture profile. To avoid that, red pepper should be pretreated before the application of hot air drying.

Chile Pepper (Capsicum) Breeding and Improvement in the "Multi-Omics" Era

Chile pepper (Capsicum spp.) is a major culinary, medicinal, and economic crop in most areas of the world. For more than hundreds of years, chile peppers have "defined" the state of New Mexico, USA. The official state question, "Red or Green?" refers to the preference for either red or the green stage of chile pepper, respectively, reflects the value of these important commodities. The presence of major diseases, low yields, decreased acreages, and costs associated with manual labor limit production in all growing regions of the world. The New Mexico State University (NMSU) Chile Pepper Breeding Program continues to serve as a key player in the development of improved chile pepper varieties for growers and in discoveries that assist plant breeders worldwide. Among the traits of interest for genetic improvement include yield, disease resistance, flavor, and mechanical harvestability. While progress has been made, the use of conventional breeding approaches has yet to fully address producer and consumer demand for these traits in available cultivars. Recent developments in "multi-omics," that is, the simultaneous application of multiple omics approaches to study biological systems, have allowed the genetic dissection of important phenotypes. Given the current needs and production constraints, and the availability of multi-omics tools, it would be relevant to examine the application of these approaches in chile pepper breeding and improvement. In this review, we summarize the major developments in chile pepper breeding and present novel tools that can be implemented to facilitate genetic improvement. In the future, chile pepper improvement is anticipated to be more data and multi-omics driven as more advanced genetics, breeding, and phenotyping tools are developed.

Supercritical fluids and fluid mixtures to obtain high-value compounds from Capsicum peppers

Peppers of the Capsicum genus have a rich nutritional composition and are widely consumed worldwide. Thus, they find numerous applications in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. One commercial application is oleoresin production, a nonpolar fraction rich in bioactive compounds, including capsaicinoids and carotenoids. Among the technologies for pepper processing, special attention is given to supercritical fluid technologies, such as supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with pure solvents and CO2 plus modifiers, and SFE assisted by ultrasound. Supercritical fluid-based processes present advantages over the classical extraction techniques like using less solvents, short extraction times, specificity and scalability. In this review, we present a brief overview of the nutritional aspects of peppers, followed by studies that apply supercritical fluid technologies to produce extracts and concentrate bioactives, besides oleoresin encapsulation. Furthermore, we present related phase equilibrium, cost estimation, and the gaps and needs for the full use of peppers from a sustainable perspective.

Agronomic Biofortification of Cayenne Pepper Cultivars with Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria and Chili Residue in a Chinese Solar Greenhouse

Agronomic biofortification of horticultural crops using plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) under crop residue incorporation systems remains largely underexploited. Bacillus subtilis (B1), Bacillus laterosporus (B2), or Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (B3) was inoculated on soil containing chili residue, while chili residue without PGPR (NP) served as the control. Two hybrid long cayenne peppers, succeeding a leaf mustard crop were used in the intensive cultivation study. Net photosynthesis, leaf stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, photosynthetic water use efficiency, shoot and root biomass, and fruit yield were evaluated. Derivatives of folate, minerals, and nitrate contents in the pepper fruits were also assessed. B1 elicited higher net photosynthesis and photosynthetic water use efficiency, while B2 and B3 had higher transpiration rates than B1 and NP. B1 and B3 resulted in 27–36% increase in pepper fruit yield compared to other treatments, whereas B3 produced 24–27.5% and 21.9–27.2% higher 5-methyltetrahydrofolate and total folate contents, respectively, compared to B1 and NP. However, chili residue without PGPR inoculation improved fruit calcium, magnesium, and potassium contents than the inoculated treatments. ‘Xin Xian La 8 F1’ cultivar had higher yield and plant biomass, fruit potassium, total soluble solids, and total folate contents compared to ‘La Gao F1.’ Agronomic biofortification through the synergy of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and chili residue produced better yield and folate contents with a trade-off in the mineral contents of the greenhouse-grown long cayenne pepper.

Effect of the Soil and Ripening Stage in Capsicum chinense var. Jaguar on the Content of Carotenoids and Vitamins

The purpose of this work was to investigate the effect of the ripening stage and type of soil on the concentration of carotenoids and vitamins in Habanero pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.). Pepper plants were grown in two soils named according to the Mayan classification as: K’ankab lu’um (red soil) and Box lu’um (black soil). The results of two harvests at 320 and 334 PTD (post-transplant day) showed that the ripening stage exhibited a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the concentration of carotenoids and vitamins, while the effect of the soil type was negligible. The concentration of carotenoids decreases as the ripening process of the fruit takes place, with the highest concentration of lutein (49.47 ± 0.34 mg/100 g of dry mass), β-carotene (99.92 ± 0.69 mg/100 g of dry mass) and β-cryptoxanthin (20.93 ± 0.04 mg/100 g of dry mass) in the unripe peppers. The concentration of vitamins increases as the ripening process develops, with the highest concentration of Vitamin E (9.69 ± 0.02 mg/100 g of dry mass) and Vitamin C (119.44 ± 4.72 mg/100 g of dry mass) in the ripe peppers. This knowledge could be used to select the best ripening stage to harvest Habanero peppers according to the use of the pepper and to the needs of producers/company.

Molecular Characterization and Expression Analysis of the Na+/H+ Exchanger Gene Family in Capsicum annuum L

The Na+/H+ exchangers (NHXs) are a class of transporters involved in ion balance during plant growth and abiotic stress. We performed systematic bioinformatic identification and expression-characteristic analysis of CaNHX genes in pepper to provide a theoretical basis for pepper breeding and practical production. At the whole-genome level, the members of the CaNHX gene family of cultivated and wild pepper were systematically identified using bioinformatics methods. Sequence alignment and phylogenetic tree construction were performed using MEGA X software, and the gene functional domain, conserved motif, and gene structure were analyzed and visualized. At the same time, the co-expression network of CaNHX genes was analyzed, and salt-stress analysis and fluorescence quantitative verification of the Zunla-1 cultivar under stress conditions were performed. A total of 9 CaNHX genes were identified, which have typical functional domains of the Na+/H+ exchanger gene. The physical and chemical properties of the protein showed that the protein was hydrophilic, with a size of 503-1146 amino acids. Analysis of the gene structure showed that Chr08 was the most localized chromosome, with 8-24 exons. Cis-acting element analysis showed that it mainly contains cis-acting elements such as light response, salicylic acid response, defense, and stress response. Transcriptom and co-expression network analysis showed that under stress, the co-expressed genes of CaNHX genes in roots and leaves were more obvious than those in the control group, including ABA, IAA, and salt. The transcriptome and co-expression were verified by qRT-PCR. In this study, the CaNHX genes were identified at the genome level of pepper, which provides a theoretical foundation for improving the stress resistance, production, development, and utilization of pepper in genetic breeding.

Association of Spicy Chilli Food Consumption With Cardiovascular and All-Cause Mortality: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies

This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the association between spicy food (chilli pepper, chilli sauce, or chilli oil) consumption with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. Medline and EMBASE were searched from their inception until February 2020 to identify relevant prospective cohort studies. Hazard ratios (HRs)/relative risk (RRs) were pooled via random-effect meta-analysis. Of the 4387 citations identified, 4 studies (from the United States, China, Italy, and Iran) were included in the meta-analysis. The included studies involved a total of 564 748 adults (aged ≥18 years; 51.2% female) followed over a median duration of 9.7 years. The pooled data suggested that compared with people who did not regularly consume spicy food (none/<1 d/wk), regular consumers of spicy food experienced a 12% (HR/RR_pooled 0.88, 95% CI, 0.86-0.90; I ² = 0%) lower risk of all-cause mortality. Moreover, spicy food consumption was associated with significant reduction in the risk of death from cardiac diseases (HR/RR_pooled 0.82, 0.73-0.91; I ² = 0%), but not from cerebrovascular disorders (HR/RR_pooled 0.79, 0.53-1.17; I ² = 72.2%). In conclusion, available epidemiological studies suggest that the consumption of spicy chilli food is associated with reduced risk of all-cause as well as heart disease-related mortality. Further studies in different populations are needed to confirm this association.

Efficacy of Dietary Supplementation with Capsicum Annum L on Performance, Hematology, Blood Biochemistry and Hepatic Antioxidant Status of Growing Rabbits

Simple Summary

The inclusion of phytochemicals in animal diets is a strategy that has been used to improve animal productivity by increasing the production yield. The addition of red-hot pepper (RHP) powder enhances productive rabbit performance and immunological, biochemical, and antioxidant statuses. Rabbits fed 2% RHP powder had higher weights. Thus, adding 1 or 2% RHP powder to rabbit diets is an easy, simple, and safe option for producers. The slaughter index and physical blood characteristics red blood cells (RBC’s), packed cell volume (PCV), hemoglobin (Hb), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscle hemoglobin (MCH) and mean corpuscle hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) were significantly improved by feeding growing rabbits on RHP levels. Low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) and very-low were distinctly (VLDL-C) decreased (p < 0.05) when feeding rabbits either 1 or 2% RHP supplemented diets. Furthermore, supplementing the rabbit’s diet with 1% RHP led to a significant increase (p < 0.001) in the total antioxidant capacity when compared to the rabbits fed with the basal diet. Additionally, the thyroxin concentration was increased with RHP supplementation. A remarkably significant effect on serum and hepatic oxidative stress responses was observed with RHP supplementation.

Abstract

Animals fed with a high amount of a wide range of antioxidants in their diet are significantly protected against oxidative stress. Powerful antioxidant substances such as vitamin E, vitamin C, and carotenoids are present naturally in red-hot pepper (RHP). This study hypothesized that using RHP may provide protection against oxidative stress and enhance animal physiological responses. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effect of feeding New Zealand white rabbits with RHP-supplemented diets on their physiological and biochemical responses. New Zealand White rabbits (age = 6 weeks, n = 48) were split equally into three groups (n = 16 in each group). One group was fed a basal diet only (control group), with the other two groups fed a basal diet along with 1 and 2% RHP. Mass spectrometric analysis for the RHP methanolic extract showed some phenolic compounds, such as p-coumaric, sinapinic acids, vanillic, and luteolin, as well as catechin and its isomers. Hepatic antioxidant enzymes (SOD, GSH, GSH-Px, and CAT) were significantly elevated (p < 0.05) by feeding rabbits diets supplemented with 1 or 2% RHP. The addition of RHP significantly enhanced immune-responses; phagocytic activity, chemotaxis, TIg, IgG, IgM, and IgA increased when growing rabbits were fed RHP compared with the control group. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of 1 or 2% RHP may play a role as an enhancer of growth and immune response in growing rabbits.

Phytochemical Assessment of Native Ecuadorian Peppers (Capsicum spp.) and Correlation Analysis to Fruit Phenomics

In this work, the impact of pepper (Capsicum spp.) fruits morphology on their composition for health-promoting compounds was investigated. For that purpose, pepper accessions from Ecuador, one of the hotspots in Capsicum's origin, were analyzed for ascorbic acid, polyphenols, capsaicinoids, and prevention of cholesterol oxidation. Plant and fruit phenomics were assessed with conventional descriptors and Tomato Analyzer digital traits. Significant differences among accessions and species revealed a large diversity within the collection. The Capsicum frutescens group displayed the highest levels of capsaicinoids, whereas the polyphenols shortly varied among the five domesticated species. Capsicum pubescens exhibited the lowest content of ascorbic acid. The conventional descriptors describing the magnitude of plants and fruits, as well as digital attributes under the categories of size, shape index, and latitudinal section, mostly explained the variance among Capsicum groups. Correlation test revealed that phytochemical components were negatively correlated with the morphometric fruit attributes, suggesting that huge fruits contained lower amounts of nutraceutical compounds. Multivariate analysis showed that parameters related to fruit size, shape, and nutraceutical composition primarily contribute to the arrangement of pepper accessions. Such results suggested that those traits have been subjected to higher selection pressures imposed by humans.

Biochemical and Antioxidant Activity of Yogurt Supplemented with Paprika Juice of Different Colors

Paprika is known to contain polyphenolic compounds that have good antioxidant properties. This study was conducted to investigate the benefits of adding paprika juice of different colors to yogurt and to determine how paprika affects the quality characteristics of yogurt. Stirred yogurt samples supplemented with different levels of red, orange, or yellow paprika juice were inoculated with mixes of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus. Paprika addition decreased the pH but increased titratable acidity, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) counts, total polyphenol content (TPC), levels of vitamin A and C, and antioxidant activity. Proteolysis and viscosity of paprika-containing yogurts were significantly higher than those of the control yogurt without paprika juice (p<0.05). In particular, the viscosity of red paprika yogurt was significantly higher than that of yogurts containing 5% orange and yellow paprika juices (each p<0.05). The antioxidant activity of the methanol extract of the yogurt containing 2.5% orange paprika juice was the highest. Storage at 4°C for 15 days only slightly altered LAB counts, antioxidant activity, and TPC of paprika yogurt. These results indicate that paprika could be used as a natural food additive for the development of functional yogurts.

Elemental Composition and Some Nutritional Parameters of Sweet Pepper from Organic and Conventional Agriculture

The increasing demand of organic agriculture (OA) is based on the consumer's belief that organic agricultural products are healthier, tastier and more nutritious. The effect of OA and conventional agriculture (CA) methods on the elemental compositions of green and red sweet peppers were studied. The highest concentrations of Ca, Cu, K and P occur in peppers from OA in both states of ripeness, with emphasis on Ca and K contents. Furthermore, the principal component analysis (PCA), points out to a clear separation, regarding concentrations, between peppers from OA and CA. The average fruit weight is higher in OA, 141 g versus 112 g in CA. Regarding productivity, CA reaches a value of 30.1 t/ha, 7% higher than the value observed for OA, i.e., 28 t/ha. Peppers from CA, exhibited greater protein content than those which originated from OA, regardless of the ripening stage, but not more ashes. Regarding nutritional ratios, the ripening stage and the production mode, can be important for an adequate choice regarding a more balanced Ca/P ratio, and the studied variety contained high Ca values ranging between 1009 and 1930 mg.kg-1. The PCA analysis also revealed that Mn and Fe are inversely correlated, confirming the importance of the Mn/Fe ratio evaluation in nutritional studies.

Capsicum pubescens as a functional ingredient: Microencapsulation and phenolic profilling by UPLC-MSE

The aim of the present investigation is to study the effect of inlet temperatures on the physicochemical properties of spray-dried jamun juice powder. The inlet temperatures varied from 140 to 160 °C, whereas other parameters like outlet temperature (80 °C), maltodextrin concentration (25%) and feed flow rate (10 mL/min) were kept constant. Moisture content, water activity, bulk density, solubility, hygroscopicity, colour, powder morphology, particle size and glass transition temperatures were analyzed for the powder samples. Higher inlet temperature increased the moisture content of the powder, and led to the formation of larger particles. Powder samples showed water activity values below 0.3, which is good for powder stability. The colour of the jamun juice powder was mainly affected by inlet temperature, leading to the formation of powders that were significantly brighter and less purple as the inlet temperature increased. Glass transition temperature ranged from 55.85 to 71.78 °C. Powders produced at lower inlet temperatures showed smoother particle surfaces, whereas higher inlet temperature showed spherical particles with some shrinkage as analyzed by scanning electron microscope.

Screening of Chilli Pepper Genotypes as a Source of Capsaicinoids and Antioxidants under Conditions of Simulated Drought Stress

In many regions of the world, the production of vegetable crops is limited by a deepening water crisis. Drought stress affects productivity and the chemical composition of crops. The variability of drought tolerance between species and cultivars of economically important crops, such as pepper (Capsicum species), requires specific investigations to understand the physiological and biochemical responses to the aftermath of drought. The fruits and leaves of four chilli pepper cultivars were investigated to elucidate the fruits' pungency (Scoville Heat Units, SHU), ascorbic acid content, DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity, polyphenol content, membrane lipid peroxidation and key protective antioxidant enzyme activity under drought stress (18-28% volumetric water content) as compared to the control (35-60%). Drought increased the chilli pepper fruits' pungency expressed in Scoville Heat Units (SHU) as well as ascorbic acid content, but this relationship was also dependent on genotype and stress duration. 'Jolokia' was marked as most sensitive to drought by increasing content of capsaicinoids and DPPH˙ scavenging activity under stress conditions. Capsaicinoids and Ascorbic acid (AsA) greatly influenced the antioxidant activity of highly pungent chilli pepper fruits, although total phenols played a significant role in the mildly pungent genotypes. Generally, the activities of antioxidant enzymes increased under drought in chilli pepper leaves and fruits, although the intensity of the reaction varied among the cultivars used in the current research. All the investigated biochemical parameters were involved in the drought response of chilli pepper plants, but their significance and effectiveness were highly cultivar-dependent.

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of the Main Fruits, Tubers and Legumes Traditionally Consumed in the Andean Regions of Ecuador as a Source of Health-Promoting Compounds

Thirteen fruits, eight legumes and three tubers consumed in the Andean regions of Ecuador were studied to determine their bioactive compounds, organic acids, sugars content, total antioxidant capacity, as well as to determine which among them showed the greatest contribution in terms of antioxidant activity and which compounds contributed to it. Among fruits, taxo fruits (Passiflora mollissima (Kunth) L.H. Bailey) presented the highest values of total phenolic, carotene content, and total antioxidant capacity. The ají ratón (Capsicum chinense Jacq) showed the highest content of vitamin C. Taxo showed the highest content of β carotene, whilst lycopene was identified only in guayaba fruits (Psidium guajava L.) and ají ratón was the principal source of lutein. In legumes, chocho perla (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet) showed the highest values for both total phenolic and flavonoid content, whilst frejol negro (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and frejol canario (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) showed the highest values for FRAP and DPPH assay, respectively. Between tubers, the jícama (Smallanthus sonchifolius (Poepp.) H. Rob.) had the majors values in terms of total phenolic, flavonoid content, and total antioxidant capacity. In terms of total antioxidant capacity, taxo fruits have the highest contribution in terms of total antioxidant capacity, whilst the dendogram shown the occurrence of five distinct groups in which taxo was located in the first largest group. Our data contributing towards gaining better knowledge about the Andean Ecuadorian diet and the composition of Andean food in order to estimate dietary intakes of health-promoting components.

Aeroponic Cloning of Capsicum spp

Aeroponic cloning is a great strategy to maintain desired genotypes by generating a whole new plant from cuttings. While this propagation technique has been demonstrated for tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), no protocol has been developed for peppers (Capsicum spp.). The ability to clonally propagate different Capsicum holds promise for domestic and industrial growing operations since elite cultivars with desirable traits (e.g., high capsaicin levels, nutrient content, and striped fruit) can be perpetuated without the need of planning a nursery. We tested six Capsicum species for their feasibility of aeroponic cloning by stem cuttings. All domestic species were successfully regenerated under aeroponic conditions but not for Capsicum eximium, a wild species. Of the species analyzed, Capsicum annuum peppers had the fastest node formation (11.6 +/− 0.89 days, P ≤ 0.01) and obtained a larger volume of roots (P ≤ 0.01) after node formation as compared to C. baccatum, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens. This study presents a cost-effective strategy to clonally propagate peppers for personal, industrial, and conservation purposes.

Genome-wide genotyping of a novel Mexican Chile Pepper collection illuminates the history of landrace differentiation after Capsicum annuum L. domestication

Studies of genetic diversity among phenotypically distinct crop landraces improve our understanding of fruit evolution and genome structure under domestication. Chile peppers (Capsicum spp. L.) are economically valuable and culturally important species, and extensive phenotypic variation among landraces exists in southern Mexico, a center of C. annuum diversity. We collected 103 chile pepper seed accessions from 22 named landraces across 27 locations in southern Mexico. We genotyped these accessions with genotyping by sequencing (GBS), yielding 32,623 filtered single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Afterward, we genotyped 32 additional C. annuum accessions from a global collection for comparison to the Mexican collection. Within the Mexican collection, genetic assignment analyses showed clear genetic differentiation between landraces and clarified the unique nature of the Tusta landrace. Further clustering analyses indicated that the largest fresh-use Chile de Agua and dry-use Costeño landraces were part of separate clades, indicating that these two landraces likely represent distinct populations. The global accessions showed considerable admixture and limited clustering, which may be due to the collapse of use-type divisions outside of Central America. The separation of the Mexican landraces in part by fruit morphology related to use highlights the relevance of this use-type morphological diversity for plant breeders and the utility of fruit development variation for evolutionary biologists.

The suitability of chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) for alleviating human micronutrient dietary deficiencies: A review

Human micronutrient dietary deficiency remains an enormous global problem and probably accounts for the cause of many chronic health conditions and diseases. Above two (2) billion individuals on the planet today have been estimated to be deficient in major minerals and vitamins, predominantly zinc, iodine, vitamin A, and iron primarily due to inadequate dietary intake. The eradication of deficiencies in micronutrient on a sustainable basis will be conceivable only when diets of vulnerable populace provide all required nutrients in adequate amounts. Among the numerous approaches toward eradicating human dietary deficiency, feeding on a wide range of foods, especially vegetables that have an array of micronutrients, is still perceived as the best sustainable solution. The universal consumption of chili peppers (Capsicum annuum), known for their high nutritional content (which includes a good range of vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and dietary fiber), may play a role in decreasing human micronutrient deficiencies. Significant portions of recommended daily nutrients could be supplied by the incorporation of nutrient-rich chili pepper into human diets which could help in combating nutrient deficiencies. This present review, therefore, gives an overview of the universal occurrence of micronutrient deficiency. It also discusses approaches that have been used to tackle the situation while stressing the potentials of chili pepper as a promising vegetable which could be utilized in alleviating human micronutrient dietary deficiencies. For all available information provided, research databases (Science direct, Academic journals, PubMed, and Google Scholar) were searched independently using keyword search strategy. Titles and abstracts were examined initially, and full papers were retrieved if studies met the inclusion criteria.

Occurrence of variable levels of health-promoting fruit compounds in horn-shaped Italian sweet pepper varieties assessed by a comprehensive approach

BACKGROUND

Cultivated pepper is a rich source of diverse bioactive compounds with potential properties related to the prevention of major degenerative and proliferative diseases. In the present study, 15 sweet pepper varieties, highly appreciated on the Italian market, were assessed for variation in the content of ascorbic acid, isoprenoids and flavonoids, as well as morpho-agronomic performances and molecular diversity.

RESULTS

The collection under study showed a wide variability for all traits considered. Traditional cultivars, although less productive, were characterized by a high content of β-carotene and ascorbic acid, reaching maximum concentrations of 230.5 mg kg^-1 fresh weight (fw) and 2750 mg kg^-1 fw, respectively. Strong correlations were demonstrated between neoxanthin and luteolins. Fruit weight was positively correlated with α-tocopherol content and negatively correlated with luteolins content. The genotyping by sequencing platform allowed the identification of 1833 single nucleotide polymorphism, which better defined the relationships among cultivars, based on provenance and improvement rate.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides an overview of the variability in the expression of fruit nutritional traits in a collection of horn-shaped pepper cultivars, integrating agronomic and molecular data. The impact for breeding and consumers is discussed. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sensory properties of chile pepper heat - and its importance to food quality and cultural preference

Chile peppers are one of the most important vegetable and spice crops in the world. They contain capsaicinoids that are responsible for the characteristic burning (pungency) sensation. Currently, there are 22 known naturally occurring capsaicinoids that can cause the heat sensation when consumed. Each produces a different heat sensation effect in the mouth. A need exists for a standard and new terminology to describe the complex heat sensation one feels when eating a chile pepper. A comprehensive set of descriptors to describe the sensory characteristics of chile pepper heat was developed. It was validated with trained panelists tasting samples representing the five domesticated species and 14 pod-types within these species. Five key attributes that define and reference a lexicon for describing the heat sensation of chile peppers were determined to describe the heat sensation in any product, and importantly, can be used in the food industry worldwide.