Outcomes of Nigeria's HIV/AIDS Treatment Program for Patients Initiated on Antiretroviral Treatment between 2004-2012

Predicting the loss to follow-up (LTFU) of HIV/AIDS patients in China using a recency-frequency (RF) model

BACKGROUND

We constructed a recency-frequency (RF) model for predicting the loss to follow-up (LTFU) in HIV/AIDS patients in China.

METHODS

Data on HIV/AIDS outpatients in the research unit from 1 August 2009 to 30 September 2020 and from 1 October to 31 December 2020 were exported as the observation and prediction datasets, respectively. The classic recency-frequency-monetary (RFM) model was expanded into RFm, RF, RFL and RFmL models. In the observation dataset, the best predictive model was obtained using k-means clustering and C5.0 verification. Then, two rounds of k-means modelling were performed on the best model: data with R ≤ 6 months were retained, randomly divided into a training set (70%) and a testing set (30%) and used to perform the second round of modelling to subdivide the churn and non-churn patients. Next, an ANN algorithm was used to predict LTFU, and the confusion matrix with prediction datasets was constructed.

RESULTS

The observation and prediction datasets included 16 949 and 10 748 samples, respectively. The RF model with three clusters and a quality of 0.82 was the best predictive model. From the observation set, 13 799 samples were retained, and the model accuracy was 100% on the training and testing sets. These 13 799 samples were subdivided into 1563 samples of churn patients and 12 216 samples of non-churn patients. The accuracy of ANN prediction was 99.89%. The accuracy and precision of the confusion matrix were 85.41% and 99.76%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The RF model is effective in predicting the LTFU of HIV/AIDS patients in China and preventing its occurrence.

Predictors of treatment interruption among patients on antiretroviral therapy in Akwa Ibom, Nigeria: outcomes after 12 months

Understanding the characteristics of people living with HIV who interrupt antiretroviral therapy (ART) is critical for designing client-centered services to ensure optimal outcomes. We assessed predictors of treatment interruption in 22 HIV clinics in Nigeria. We reviewed records of HIV-positive patients aged ≥15 years who started ART 1 January and 31 March 2019. We determined treatment status over 12 months as either active, or interrupted treatment (defined as interruption in treatment up to 28 days or longer). Potential predictors were assessed using Cox hazard regression models. Overall, 1185 patients were enrolled on ART, 829 (70%) were female, and median age was 32 years. Retention at 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months was 85%, 80%, 76%, 72%, and 68%, respectively. Predictors of treatment interruption were post-secondary education (p = 0.04), diagnosis through voluntary counseling and testing (p < 0.001), receiving care at low-volume facilities (p < 0.001), lack of access to a peer counselor (p < 0.001), and residing outside the clinic catchment area (p = 0.03). Treatment interruption was common but can be improved by focusing on lower volume health facilities, providing peer support especially to those with higher education, and client-centered HIV services for those who live further from clinics..

A Qualitative Study Exploring Factors Associated with Retention in HIV Care among Women with HIV in a Large HIV Clinic in Lagos, Nigeria, after Implementing the Test and Treat Policy

Background

In Nigeria, various sociocultural and economic factors may prevent women from being retained in HIV care. This study explores the factors associated with retention in care among women with HIV in a large HIV clinic in Lagos, Nigeria, under the Test and Treat policy.

Methods

Women living with HIV/AIDS (n = 24) enrolled in an HIV study at the AIDS Prevention Initiative in Nigeria (APIN) clinic in Lagos, Nigeria, were interviewed from April 1 to October 31, 2021, using a semistructured interview guide. Interviews were audio-taped, transcribed verbatim, and the themes were analyzed using the framework of Andersen and Newman's Behavioural Model for Healthcare Utilization.

Results

The mean age of the respondents was 37.4 ± 9.27 years. The identified themes were as follows: being aware of the antiretroviral medications and their benefits, the household's awareness of the respondents' HIV status, and the presence of social support. Other themes were the presence of a dependable source of income and the ability to overcome the challenges encountered in obtaining income, ease of travel to and from the clinic (length of travel time and transportation costs), securing support from the clinic, challenges encountered in the process of accessing care at the clinic, and the ability to overcome these challenges. Also mentioned were self-perception of being HIV positive, motivation to remain in care, linkage to care, and intention to stay in care.

Conclusion

Several deterring factors to retention in HIV care, such as nondisclosure of status, absence of social support, and clinic barriers, persist under the Test and Treat policy. Therefore, to achieve the "treatment as prevention" for HIV/AIDS, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, it is essential to employ strategies that address these barriers and leverage the facilitators for better health outcomes among women with HIV/AIDS.

Analyses of Kaposi Sarcoma trends among adults establishing initial outpatient HIV care in Nigeria: 2006-2017

Background

The incidence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-associated Kaposi Sarcoma (KS) in the pre-antiretroviral therapy (ART) population remains high in several countries in sub-Saharan Africa. We examined trends of KS prevalence in adults, establishing initial outpatient HIV care from 2006 to 2017 in Nigeria.

Methods

We analyzed data of 16,431 adults (age ≥ 18 years) enrolled for HIV care from January 1, 2006, to December 31, 2017, in a large clinic in Jos, Nigeria. KS at enrollment was defined as KS recorded in the electronic health record within 30 days of clinic enrollment. Time trends were compared among four periods: 2006–2008, 2009–2011, 2012–2014, and 2015–2017 using logistic regression models. Annual trends were analyzed using join point regression and restricted splines.

Results

The study population had a mean age 35.1 (standard deviation, SD 9.5) years, and were 65.7% female (n = 10,788). The mean CD4 cell count was 220 (95% CI 117–223). The overall KS prevalence at entry was 0.59% (95% CI 0.48–0.72). Compared to 2006–2008, KS prevalence was significantly higher in 2009–2011 (adjusted odds ratio 5.07 (95% CI 3.12–8.24), p < 0.001), but remained unchanged in subsequent periods. Male sex and low CD4 T-cell count independently increased odds for KS.

Conclusions

Despite ART expansion, KS at enrollment showed no significant decline. The low CD4 cell count, across all periods, indicates delay in enrollment for HIV care, which increases KS risk. Interventions aimed at early HIV diagnosis and linkage to ART is critical to KS risk reduction in this population.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13027-022-00424-4.

Patient and health facility attributes associated with retention and virologic suppression in private for-profit health facilities in Nigeria

Background

In Nigeria, private for-profit health facilities present an opportunity to achieve the UNAIDS 95-95-95 HIV targets because of their reach and patronage. However, little is known about determinants of outcomes in these facilities. This study describes patient outcomes and the patient and health facility characteristics associated with these outcomes in adults receiving HIV treatment in private facilities in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Benue and Nasarawa states in north-central Nigeria.

Methods

A retrospective longitudinal analysis of program data collected between 2013 and 2019 was done. Patient attributes and outcomes were compared across the two states and FCT. Incidence rates were determined for all cause exit, mortality and loss to follow up (LTFU). Cox proportional hazard models were used to identify associations between patient and facility attributes and these outcomes. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were used to determine the factors associated with viral suppression among the study participants.

Results

Of the 22,010 study subjects, 42.7%, 22.2% and 35.1%, respectively, were in Benue, FCT and Nasarawa. Almost a third (31.8%) had received antiretroviral treatment (ART) for less than a year at censoring. Incidence rates for all-cause exit, mortality and loss to follow up (LTFU) were 17.2 (95% CI 16.8, 17.5), 2.1 (95% CI 2.0, 2.2), and 11.2 (95% CI 10.8, 11.8) per 100 person years respectively. Males had higher risks of death (HR = 1.47, 95% CI 1.25–1.73), and LTFU (HR = 1.08, 95% CI 1.00–1.16). Age at ART start showed a dose–response association with both mortality and LTFU. Care at model facilities (OR = 2.16, p < 0.001), Zidovudine (AZT)-based regimens (OR = 2.00, p < 0.001), and lowest quartile baseline CD4 + count (OR = 2.40, p < 0.001) were associated with regimen switch. 75.6% of subjects were viral suppressed. Male gender (OR = 0.84, p = 0.025); AZT-based regimen (OR = 0.72, p < 0.001), age in the bottom quartile (OR = 0.71, p = 0.002) were associated with virally suppression.

Conclusion

Private for-profit facilities are a major provider of HIV and other health services in Nigeria. With appropriate technical support and engagement, they can help accelerate efforts to achieve epidemic control of HIV in Nigeria, and contribute to achievement of UNAIDS 95-95-95 target by 2030.

Factors associated with an interruption in treatment of people living with HIV in USAID-supported states in Nigeria: a retrospective study from 2000-2020

Background

Patient interruption of antiretroviral therapy (ART) continues to limit HIV programs’ progress toward epidemic control. Multiple factors have been associated with client interruption in treatment (IIT)— including age, gender, CD4 count, and education level. In this paper, we explore the factors associated with IIT in people living with HIV (PLHIV) in United States Agency for International Development (USAID)-supported facilities under the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) program in Nigeria.

Methods

We conducted cross-sectional analyses on data obtained from Nigeria’s National Data Repository (NDR), representing a summarized record of 573 630 ART clients that received care at 484 PEPFAR/USAID-supported facilities in 16 states from 2000–2020. IIT was defined as no clinical contact for 28 days or more after the last expected clinical contact. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were computed to explore the factors associated with IIT. The variables included in the analysis were sex, age group, zone, facility level, regimen line, multi-month dispensing (MMD), and viral load category.

Results

Of the 573 630 clients analysed in this study, 32% have been recorded as having interrupted treatment. Of the clients investigated, 66% were female (32% had interrupted treatment), 39% were aged 25–34 at their last ART pick-up date (with 32% of them interrupted treatment), 59% received care at secondary level facilities (37% interrupted treatment) and 38% were last receiving between three- to five-month MMD (with 10% of these interrupted treatment). Those less likely to interrupt ART were males (aOR = 0.91), clients on six-month MMD (aOR = 0.01), adults on 2^nd line regimen (aOR = 0.09), and paediatrics on salvage regimen (aOR = 0.02). Clients most likely to interrupt ART were located in the South West Zone (aOR = 1.99), received treatment at a tertiary level (aOR = 12.34) or secondary level facilities (aOR = 4.01), and had no viral load (VL) on record (aOR =10.02). Age group was not significantly associated with IIT.

Conclusions

Sex, zone, facility level, regimen line, MMD, and VL were significantly associated with IIT. MMD of three months and longer (especially six months) had better retention on ART than those on shorter MMD. Not having a VL on record was associated with a considerable risk of IIT.

Differentiated service delivery models among PLHIV in Akwa Ibom and Cross River States, Nigeria during the COVID-19 pandemic: descriptive analysis of programmatic data

Introduction

The rapid increase in the number of people living with HIV (PLHIV) on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Akwa Ibom and Cross River states in Nigeria led to overcrowding at clinics. Patients were devolved to receive ART refills through five differentiated service delivery (DSD) models: fast‐track (FT), adolescent refill clubs (ARCs), community pharmacy ART refill programs (CPARPs), community ART refill clubs (CARCs) and community ART refill groups (CARGs) designed to meet the needs of different groups of PLHIV. In the context of COVID‐19‐related travel restrictions, out‐of‐facility models offered critical mechanisms for continuity of treatment. We compared retention and viral suppression among those devolved to DSD with those who continued standard care at facilities.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was conducted among patients devolved to DSD from January 2018 to December 2020. Bivariate analyses were conducted to assess differences in retention and viral suppression by socio‐demographic characteristics. Kaplan–Meier assessed retention at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. Differences in proportions were compared using the chi‐square test; a p‐value of <0.05 was considered significant.

Results

A total of 40,800 PLHIV from 84 facilities received ART through the five models: CARC (53%), FT (19.1%), ARC (12.1%), CPARP (10.4%) and CARG (5.4%). Retention rates at 6 months exceeded 96% for all models compared to 94% among those continuing standard care. Among those using DSD, retention rate at 12 months was higher among adults than children (97.8% vs. 96.7%, p = 0.04). No significant sex differences in retention rates were found among those enrolled in DSD. Viral suppression rates among PLHIV served through DSD were significantly higher among adults than children (95.4% vs. 89.2%; p <0.01). Among adults, 95.4% enrolled in DSD were virally suppressed compared to 91.8% of those in standard care (p <0.01). For children, 89.2% enrolled in DSD were virally suppressed compared to 83.2% in standard care (p <0.01).

Conclusions

PLHIV receiving ART through DSD models had retention but higher viral suppression rates compared to those receiving standard care. Expanding DSD during COVID‐19 has helped ensure uninterrupted access to ART in Nigeria. Further scale‐up is warranted to decongest facilities and improve clinical outcomes.

The impact of gender and the social determinants of health on the clinical course of people living with HIV in Myanmar: an observational study

Background

There is a growing recognition of the impact of gender and the social determinants of health on the clinical course of people living with HIV (PLHIV). However, the relative contribution of these factors to clinical outcomes of PLHIV is incompletely defined in many countries. This study was performed to gain a greater understanding of the non-clinical determinants of prognosis of PLHIV in Myanmar.

Methods

Selected demographic, behavioural and socioeconomic characteristics of outpatients at two specialist HIV hospitals and one general hospital in Yangon, Myanmar were correlated with their subsequent clinical course; a poor outcome was defined as death, hospitalisation, loss to follow-up or a detectable viral load at 6 months of follow-up.

Results

221 consecutive individuals with advanced HIV commencing anti-retroviral therapy (ART) were enrolled in the study; their median CD4 T-cell count was 92 (44–158) cells/mm³, 138 (62.4%) were male. Socioeconomic disadvantage was common: the median (interquartile range (IQR) monthly per-capita income in the cohort was US$48 (31–77); 153 (69.9%) had not completed high school. However, in a multivariate analysis that considered demographic, behavioural, clinical factors and social determinants of health, male gender was the only predictor of a poor outcome: odds ratio (95% confidence interval): 2.33 (1.26–4.32, p = 0.007). All eight of the deaths and hospitalisations in the cohort occurred in males (p = 0.03).

Conclusions

Men starting ART in Myanmar have a poorer prognosis than women. Expanded implementation of gender-specific management strategies is likely to be necessary to improve outcomes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12981-021-00364-w.

Immunological and virological discordance among people living with HIV on highly active antiretroviral therapy in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) with immuno-virological discordant responses are at an increased risk to develop acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and severe non AIDS events which are risk factors for death. This study was aimed to assess prevalence of immuno- virological discordant responses and associated risk factors among highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) users in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia.

METHODS

A cross sectional study was conducted from September to December 30, 2016 on 260 people living with HIV who started first line HAART from January 2008 to March 2016 at Mekelle hospital and Ayder comprehensive specialized hospital. Baseline and follow-up clinical data and CD4+ result were collected from patient charts. Besides, socio-demographic data and blood samples for CD4 ₊ count and viral load measurement were collected during data collection period. Fisher's exact test, bivariate and multivariate logistic regressions were used for data analysis. P-value < 0.05 with 95% CI was considered as statistically significant.

RESULT

Among the 260 study participants, 8.80% (95% Confidence Interval (CI) =8.77-8.84%) and 2.70% (95% CI = 2.68-2.72%) had virological and immunological discordant responses, respectively with an overall immuno-virological discordance response of 11.50% (95% CI = 11.46-11.54%). The median age of the study participants at HAART initiation was 35 (IQR: 28-44 years). More than half (58.1%) of the study participants were females. Age at or below 35 years old at HAART initiation (AOR ((95% CI) = 4.25(1.48-12.23), p = 0.007)), male gender ((Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) (95% CI) =1.71(1.13-1.10), p = 0.029)), type of regimen given ((AOR(95% CI) = 0.30 (0.10-0.88), p = 0.028)) and good treatment adherence ((AOR (95% CI) = 0.12 (0.030-0.0.48), p = 0.003)) were associated risk factors for virological discordant response. Likewise, immunological discordant response was associated with tuberculosis co-infections (p = 0.016), hepatitis B virus co-infections (p = 0.05) and low CD4+ count (≤100 cells/μl) at baseline (p = 0.026).

CONCLUSIONS

Over all, immuno-virological discordance response was 11.5% in the study area. Males, low baseline CD4+ count, poor/fair treatment adherence, and TB and HBV co-infections were significantly associated with higher immuno-virological discordance. We recommend that decision of patient treatment outcome, regimen change and patient management response should be done using trends of both viral load and CD4+ count concurrently.

Determinants of loss to follow-up among people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy in Nigeria

Background: Considerable success has been recorded in the global fight against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Retention in care is the key to the attainment of set goals in the fight against the disease. We aim to determine the factors associated with loss to follow-up (LTFU) among people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in a limited resource setting.Method: This was a retrospective cohort study that included adult patients who accessed ART at the study site between January 2005 and October 2018. A multivariate logistic regression model was used to obtain adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals of independent determinants of LTFU.Results: Of the 8 679 patients included in the study, 3 716 (43%) were males, 4 009 (46%) were enrolled during the years 2005 to 2008, 8 421 (97%) spent less than two hours travelling from their residence to the treatment centre, and 3 523 (41%) had their first-line ART regimen changed. Among the characteristics that determine LTFU were male patients (OR = 1.167, 95% CI: 1.071-1.272), and World Health Organization clinical stage 3 (OR = 2.091, 95% CI: 1.485-2.944).Conclusion: In our study, male gender, enrolment year 2005 to 2008, no change in first-line ART and nevirapine-based therapy were more likely to be associated with LTFU.

Effect of Baseline Symptom Manifestations on Retention in Care and Treatment among HIV-Infected Patients in Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Symptom management is an important component of HIV care. But symptom patterns and how they affect engagement with HIV care and treatment services have not been adequately explored in the era of increased HIV treatment scale-up. We investigated the relationship between symptom patterns among people living with HIV (PLHIV) and 12 months retention in care, within the context of other clinical and demographic characteristics.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort analysis of 5114 PLHIV receiving care within a large HIV treatment program in Nigeria. We assessed the prevalence and burden of baseline symptoms reported during routine clinic visits from January 2015 to December 2017. Multivariable regression was used to identify relationships between 12-month retention and symptom dimensions (prevalence and burden) while controlling for demographic and other clinical variables.

RESULTS

Increasing symptom burden was associated with higher likelihood of retention at 12 months (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.19 [95% confidence interval, CI: 1.09-1.29]; P < .001) as was the reporting of skin rashes/itching symptom (aOR = 2.59 [95% CI: 1.65-4.09]; P < .001). Likelihood of retention reduced with increasing World Health Organization (WHO) Clinical staging, with CD4 ≥500 cells/mL and self-reported heterosexual mode of HIV transmission. Conclusions: Symptom dimensions and standardized clinical/immunological measures both predicted retention in care, but effects differed in magnitude and direction. Standardized clinical/immunological measures in HIV care (eg, WHO clinical staging and CD4 count categories) can mask important differences in how PLHIVs experience symptoms and, therefore, their engagement with HIV care and treatment. Symptom management strategies are required alongside antiretroviral treatment to improve outcomes among PLHIV, including retention in care.

Attrition and Its Predictors Among Adults Receiving First-Line Antiretroviral Therapy in Woldia Town Public Health Facilities, Northeast Ethiopia: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Introduction

There is an expansion and advancement of antiretroviral therapy. However, attrition of patients from HIV care is one of the major drivers of poor performance of HIV/AIDS programs, which leads to drug resistance, morbidity and mortality. The study aimed to assess the incidence of attrition and its predictors among adults receiving first-line antiretroviral therapy.

Methods

An institution-based retrospective cohort study was conducted among 634 adults receiving antiretroviral therapy, and study participants were selected using a simple random sampling technique. Data were cleaned and entered into Epi Data version 3.1 and exported to STATA 14.1 for further analysis. The predictors of attrition were identified using bivariable and multivariable Cox Proportional hazard models; then, variables at a p-value of less than 0.25 and 0.05 were included in the multivariable analysis and statistically significant, respectively.

Results

The total time observed was found to be 1807.08 person-years of observation with a median follow-up time of 2.67 years (IQR 1.25−4.67). The incidence rate of attrition was 8.36 (95% CI: 7.12−9.80) per 100 person-years. Significant predictors of attrition were being young age [adjusted hazard ratio (AHR) =2.0, 95% CI, (1.11−3.58)], nearest calendar year of ART initiation [AHR =2.32, 95% CI, (1.08–5.01)], bedridden functional status [AHR=3.25, 95% CI, (1.33−7.96)], WHO stage III [AHR=3.57, 95% CI, (1.58−8.06)] and stage IV [AHR=5.46, 95% CI, (1.97−15.13)], viral load result of ≤1000 [AHR=0.11, 95% CI, (0.06−0.23)], disclosure status [AHR=2.03, 95% CI, (1.22−3.37)] and adherence level of poor [AHR=3.19, 95 CI, (1.67−6.09)].

Conclusion

The result of this study showed that the incidence of attrition among adults receiving antiretroviral therapy was high. However, as a standard, every client who started antiretroviral therapy should be retained. Positive predictors of attrition were young age (15–24), recent year of ART initiation, baseline functional status, advanced WHO stage III and IV, no disclosure status, fair/poor adherence whereas, viral load result of ≤1000 copies/mL had a preventive effect on attrition.

Food insecurity predicts loss to follow-up among people living with HIV in Senegal, West Africa

The goals of this study were to assess retention on antiretroviral therapy (ART) and to identify predictors of loss to follow-up (LTFU) among people living with HIV (PLHIV) in Senegal. HIV-positive individuals presenting for initiation of ART in Dakar and Ziguinchor were enrolled and followed for 12 months. Data were collected using interviews, clinical evaluations, laboratory analyses, chart review, and active patient tracing. Of the 207 individuals enrolled, 70% were female, 32% had no formal education, and 28% were severely food insecure. At the end of the follow-up period, 58% were retained on ART, 15% were deceased, 4% had transferred care, 5% had migrated, and 16% were lost to follow-up. Enrollment in Ziguinchor (OR 2.71 [1.01–7.22]) and severe food insecurity (OR 2.55 [1.09–5.96]) were predictive of LTFU. Sex, age, CD4 count, BMI <18.5, country of birth, marital status, number of children, household size, education, consultation with traditional healers, transportation time, and transportation cost were not associated with LTFU. The strongest predictor of severe food insecurity was lack of formal education (OR 2.75 [1.30–5.80]). Addressing the upstream drivers of food insecurity and implementing strategies to enhance food security for PLHIV may be effective approaches to reduce LTFU and strengthen the HIV care cascade in the region.

Rate and Predictors of Mortality Among Adults on Antiretroviral Therapy at Debre Markos Referral Hospital, North West Ethiopia

Background

Human immunodeficiency virus/Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a chronic communicable disease with devastating global socio-economic, and political impacts commonly affecting the young and early adult populations. Ethiopia is doing well in controlling HIV/AIDS epidemic infection among African countries. This study set out to determine the mortality rate and its predictors among adults on antiretroviral therapy at Debre Markos Referral Hospital, northwest Ethiopia.

Methods

A hospital-based retrospective follow-up study was conducted from February to March 2018. A computer-generated simple random sample selected 480 cards of patients on antiretroviral therapy who were enrolled between February 2010 to January 2018. Epi-data Version 4.2 software was used for data entry and SPSS Version 25 for management and analysis. An adjusted hazard rate with a 95% confidence interval was used to identify significant predictors of mortality.

Results

The mortality rate was about 3.9 per 100 person-years. Cotrimoxazole prophylactic therapy (AHR: 2.99; 95% CI: 1.58, 5.70), being single (AHR: 2.37: 95% CI: 1.15, 4.87), non-disclosed status (AHR: 7.77; 95% CI: 3.76, 16.06), anemia (AHR: 2.16; 95% CI: 1.14, 4.09), bedridden (AHR: 6.11; 95% CI: 2.42, 15.41) or ambulatory (AHR: 2.16; 95%: 1.04, 4.51), presence of opportunistic infections (OIs) (AHR: 5.02; 95% CI: 1.70, 14.83) and tuberculosis (TB) co-infection (AHR: 5.57; 95% CI: 2.23, 13.88) were the significant predictors.

Conclusion and Recommendation

This study had a high mortality rate. Being single, bedridden, TB coinfection, anemia, and cotrimoxazole prophylaxis were the predictors of mortality. Therefore, psychological support and close follow-up for single, non-disclosed, non-adherent patients and early detection and treatment of anemia, tuberculosis, and OIs to reduce mortality is recommended.

Predictors of first-line antiretroviral therapy failure among adults and adolescents living with HIV/AIDS in a large prevention and treatment program in Nigeria

Background

A substantial number of persons living with HIV (PLWH) in Nigeria do not experience durable viral suppression on first-line antiretroviral therapy (ART). Understanding risk factors for first-line treatment failure informs patient monitoring practices and distribution of limited resources for second-line regimens. We determined predictors of immunologic and virologic failures in a large ART delivery program in Abuja, Nigeria.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was conducted at the University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, a tertiary health care facility, using data from February 2005 to December 2014 in Abuja, Nigeria. All PLWH aged ≥ 15 years who initiated ART with at least 6-month follow-up and one CD4 measurement were included. Immunologic failure was defined as a CD4 decrease to or below pre-ART level or persistent CD4 < 100 cells per mm³ after 6 months on ART. Virologic failure (VF) was defined as two consecutive HIV-1 RNA levels > 1000 copies/mL after at least 6 months of ART and enhanced adherence counselling. HIV drug resistance (Sanger sequences) was analyzed using the Stanford HIV database algorithm and scored for resistance to common nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs). Univariate and multivariate log binomial regression models were used to estimate relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results

Of 12,452 patients followed, a total of 5928 initiated ART with at least 6 months of follow-up and one CD4 measurement. The entry point for 3924 (66.2%) was through the program’s own voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) center, while 1310 (22.1%) were referred from an outside clinic/program, 332 (5.6%) in-patients, and 373 (6.3%) through other entry points including prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) and transferred from other programs. The mean CD4 at enrollment in care was 268 ± 23.7 cells per mm³, and the mean HIV-1 RNA was 3.3 ± 1.3.log₁₀ copies/mL. A total of 3468 (80.5%) received nevirapine (NVP) and 2260 (19.5%) received efavirenz (EFV)—based regimens. A total of 2140 (36.1%) received tenofovir (TDF); 2662 (44.9%) zidovudine (AZT); and 1126 (19.0%) stavudine (d4T). Among those receiving TDF, 45.0% also received emtricitabine (FTC). In a multivariate model, immunologic failure was more common among PLWH with female gender as compared to male [RR (95% CI) 1.22 (1.07–1.40)] and less common among those who entered care at the program’s VCT center as compared to other entry points [0.79 (0.64–0.91)], WHO stage 3/4 as compared to 1/2 [0.19 (0.16–0.22)], or CD4 200 + cells per mm³ as compared to lower [0.19 (0.16–0.22)]. Virologic failure was more common among PLWH who entered care at the program’s VCT center as compared to other entry points [RR (95% CI) 1.45 (1.11–1.91) and those with CD4 < 200 cells per mm³ at entry into care as compared to higher [1.71 (1.36–2.16)]. Of 198 patient-derived samples sequenced during virologic failure, 42 (21%) were wild-type; 145 (73%) carried NNRTI drug resistance mutations; 151 (76.3%) M184I/V; 29 (14.6%) had ≥ 3 TAMs, and 37 (18.7%) had K65R, of whom all were on TDF-containing first-line regimens.

Conclusions

In this cohort of Nigerian PLWH followed for a period of 9 years, immunologic criteria poorly predicted virologic failure. Furthermore, a subset of samples showed that patients failing ART for extended periods of time had HIV-1 strains harboring drug resistance mutations.

Long-term virological outcomes, failure and acquired resistance in a large cohort of Ugandan children

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate long-term virological failure (VF) and drug resistance among HIV-infected Ugandan children on first-line ART.

METHODS

In a multicentre prospective cohort study, viral load (VL) and drug resistance mutations (DRMs) were investigated at baseline and 6 monthly intervals in children (age ≤ 12 years). VF (two consecutive VLs >1000 copies/mL or death after 6 months of ART) was defined as early VF (0-24 months of ART) or late VF (25-48 months of ART). An active regimen was defined as partially active if the genotypic susceptibility score (GSS) was <3.

RESULTS

Between 2010 and 2011, 316 children were enrolled. Viral suppression was achieved in 75.8%, 71.5%, 72.6% and 69.2% at 12, 24, 36 and 48 months. VF occurred in 111/286 (38.8%), of which 67.6% was early and 32.4% late VF. Early VF was associated with a partially active regimen at baseline (OR 6.0, 95% CI 1.9-18.5), poor adherence (OR 3.1, 95% CI 1.3-7.4) and immunodeficiency (OR 3.3, 95% CI 1.1-10.2). Late VF was associated with age >3 years (OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.0-6.6) and WHO stage 3/4 (OR 4.2, 95% CI 1.4-13.4). Acquired DRMs were detected in 27.0% before 24 months, versus 14.4% after 24 months (P < 0.001). A total of 92.2% of the children with early VF, versus 56.2% with late VF, had a partially active regimen (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

VF rates were high, occurred predominantly in the first 24 months and appeared to increase again in year four. Risk factors and patterns of early VF/DRMs were different from those of late VF/DRMs. Virological control may improve by close monitoring and prompt switching to second-line therapy in the first 24 months. Late VF may be prevented by early start of ART.

Magnitude of non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy and associated factors among adult people living with HIV/AIDS in Benishangul-Gumuz Regional State, Ethiopia

Introduction

Following global efforts to increase antiretroviral therapy (ART) access and coverage, Ethiopia has made significant achievement with a 6.3% annual decline in the HIV/AIDS incidence rate between 1990 and 2016. Such success depends not only on access to ART but also on attaining optimum treatment adherence. Emerging studies in Ethiopia has shown the increasing prevalence of poor adherence and lack of the desired viral suppression, but the extent and factors associated with non-adherence to ART are not well known, especially in the current study setup. In this study, we examined the magnitude and factors associated with treatment and non-adherence to ART among people living with HIV in Benishangul-Gumuz Regional State, northwest Ethiopia.

Methods

An institutional facility based cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out among adult people living with HIV/AIDS from mid-December 2016 to February 2017 with only 98.9% response rate. Sociodemographic factors (age, gender, marital status and residential area), economic factors (educational status, income, asset possession, employment status, dietary diversity, nutritional status and food security), and clinical characteristics (CD4 count, duration on ART and history of opportunistic infections) were explanatory variables. ART non-adherence was measured using a visual analogue scale (VAS). We used binary logistic regression and subsequent multivariate logistic regression analysis to determine the factors associated with ART non-adherence.

Result

Overall, 39.7% of the participants were found non-adherent to ART. Strong association was found between non-adherence to ART and young age below 25 years (AOR: 4.30, 95% CI [1.39-3.35]; p = 0.011), urban residential area (AOR: 2.78, CI [1.23-7.09], p = 0.043), lack of employment (AOR: 1.75, 95% CI [1.05-2.91], p = 0.032), food insecurity (AOR: 2.67, 95% CI [7.59-8.97]; p < 0.0001), malnutrition (AOR: 1.55, 95% CI [1.94-2.56]; p = 0.027) and opportunistic infections (AOR: 1.81, 95% CI [1.11-2.97]; p = 0.018).

Conclusion

The prevalence of non-adherence to ART in this study was high. Sociodemographic and economic factors such as young age of below 25 years, urban residential area, lack of employment, food insecurity, malnutrition and opportunistic infections were among the factors associated with non-adherence to ART.

Expression profiling of human milk derived exosomal microRNAs and their targets in HIV-1 infected mothers

Despite the use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in HIV-1 infected mothers approximately 5% of new HIV-1 infections still occur in breastfed infants annually, which warrants for the development of novel strategies to prevent new HIV-1 infections in infants. Human milk (HM) exosomes are highly enriched in microRNAs (miRNAs), which play an important role in neonatal immunity. Furthermore, HM exosomes from healthy donors are known to inhibit HIV-1 infection and transmission; however, the effect of HIV-1 on HM exosomal miRNA signatures remains unknown. In this study, we used nCounter NanoString technology and investigated miRNAs expression profiles in first week postpartum HM exosomes from HIV-1 infected and uninfected control mothers (n = 36). Our results indicated that HIV-1 perturbed the differential expression patterns of 19 miRNAs (13 upregulated and 6 downregulated) in HIV-1 infected women compared to healthy controls. DIANA-miR functional pathway analyses revealed that multiple biological pathways are involved including cell cycle, pathways in cancer, TGF-β signaling, FoxO signaling, fatty acid biosynthesis, p53 signaling and apoptosis. Moreover, the receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve analyses of miR-630 and miR-378g yielded areas under the ROC curves of 0.82 (95% CI 0.67 to 0.82) and 0.83 (95% CI 0.67 to 0.83), respectively highlighting their potential to serve as biomarkers to identify HIV-1 infection in women. These data may contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies in prevention of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV-1.

Risk factors for loss to follow-up from antiretroviral therapy programmes in low-income and middle-income countries

INTRODUCTION

Loss to follow-up (LTFU) rates from antiretroviral treatment (ART) programmes in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) are high, leading to poor treatment outcomes and onward transmission of HIV. Knowledge of risk factors is required to address LTFU. In this systematic review, risk factors for LTFU are identified and meta-analyses performed.

METHODS

PubMed, Embase, Psycinfo and Cochrane were searched for studies that report on potential risk factors for LTFU in adults who initiated ART in LMICs. Meta-analysis was performed for risk factors evaluated by at least five studies. Pooled effect estimates and their 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated using random effect models with inverse variance weights. Risk of bias was assessed and sensitivity analyses performed.

RESULTS

Eighty studies were included describing a total of 1 605 320 patients of which 87.4% from sub-Saharan Africa. The following determinants were significantly associated with an increased risk of LTFU in meta-analysis: male sex, older age, being single, unemployment, lower educational status, advanced WHO stage, low weight, worse functional status, poor adherence, nondisclosure, not receiving cotrimoxazole prophylactic therapy when indicated, receiving care at secondary level and more recent year of initiation. No association was seen for CD4 cell count, tuberculosis at baseline, regimen, and geographical setting.

CONCLUSION

There are several sociodemographic, clinical, patient behaviour, treatment-related and system level risk factors for LTFU from ART programs. Knowledge of risk factors should be used to better target retention interventions and develop tools to identify high-risk patients.

Tackling cryptococcal meningitis in Nigeria, one-step at a time; the impact of training

BACKGROUND

Nigeria is estimated to have 25,000 cases of cryptococcal antigenemia (CrAg) annually. CrAg screening with pre-emptive fluconazole treatment is recommended but not yet implemented in Nigeria. Trainings were conducted to improve health-care provider (HCP) awareness and clinical skills in the management and prevention of cryptococcal meningitis (CM).

METHODS

HCPs providing care for people living with HIV were targeted for training at 13 sites from April to November 2018 Course content was adapted from CDC Cryptococcal Screening Program Training Manual and LIFE-website. "Hands-on" training on CrAg testing and lumbar puncture was included. A 14-point pre and post-test assessment instrument was designed to capture the impact of the training and focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted.

RESULTS

A total of 761 HCPs were trained. 519 HCPs completed the pre-test evaluation while 470 (90.6%) took part in the post-test evaluation. Post-training, HCPs were significantly more likely to respond correctly to all 14 assessment items, with the mean percentage score rising to 91.0% from a pre-training value of 60.0%. FGDs revealed that many of the HCPs were not aware of the CrAg screening and pre-emptive treatment recommendations in Nigerian guidelines, and reported not having seen or managed a case of CM. Also, they highlighted challenges with routine CrAg screening due to a lack of access to CD4 testing, CrAg test kits, antifungal drugs, as well as the need for similar trainings across all tiers of care in Nigeria.

CONCLUSION

Training significantly improved HCPs' understanding of Nigerian policy on CrAg screening, CM diagnosis and best management practices. This training could be included in routine capacity building efforts for HCPs involved in HIV care in Nigeria.

Retention and predictors of attrition among patients who started antiretroviral therapy in Zimbabwe's national antiretroviral therapy programme between 2012 and 2015

BACKGROUND

The last evaluation to assess outcomes for patients receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) through the Zimbabwe public sector was conducted in 2011, covering the 2007-2010 cohorts. The reported retention at 6, 12, 24 and 36 months were 90.7%, 78.1%, 68.8% and 64.4%, respectively. We report findings of a follow-up evaluation for the 2012-2015 cohorts to assess the implementation and impact of recommendations from this prior evaluation.

METHODS

A nationwide retrospective study was conducted in 2016. Multi-stage proportional sampling was used to select health facilities and study participants records. The data extracted from patient manual records included demographic, baseline clinical characteristics and patient outcomes (active on treatment, died, transferred out, stopped ART and lost to follow-up (LTFU)) at 6, 12, 24 and 36 months. The data were analysed using Stata/IC 14.2. Retention was estimated using survival analysis. The predictors associated with attrition were determined using a multivariate Cox regression model.

RESULTS

A total of 3,810 participants were recruited in the study. The median age in years was 35 (IQR: 28-42). Overall, retention increased to 92.4% (p-value = 0.060), 86.5% (p-value<0.001), 79.2% (p-value<0.001) and 74.4% (p-value<0.001) at 6, 12, 24 and 36 months respectively. LTFU accounted for 98% of attrition. Being an adolescent or a young adult (15-24 years) (vs adult;1.41; 95% CI:1.14-1.74), children (<15years) (vs adults; aHR 0.64; 95% CI:0.46-0.91), receiving care at primary health care facility (vs central and provincial facility; aHR 1.23; 95% CI:1.01-1.49), having initiated ART between 2014-2015 (vs 2012-2013; aHR1.45; 95%CI:1.24-1.69), having WHO Stage IV (vs Stage I-III; aHR2.06; 95%CI:1.51-2.81) and impaired functional status (vs normal status; aHR1.25; 95%CI:1.04-1.49) predicted attrition.

CONCLUSION

The overall retention was higher in comparison to the previous 2007-2010 evaluation. Further studies to understand why attrition was found to be higher at primary health care facilities are warranted. Implementation of strategies for managing patients with advanced HIV disease, differentiated care for adolescents and young adults and tracking of LTFU clients should be prioritised to further improve retention.

HIV virological non-suppression and factors associated with non-suppression among adolescents and adults on antiretroviral therapy in northern Ethiopia: a retrospective study

Background

Despite the benefits of Antiretroviral Therapy (ART), there is a growing concern of treatment failure. This study aimed to assess viral non suppression rate and factors associated with HIV viral non suppression among adolescents and adults on ART in Northern Ethiopia.

Methods

A retrospective cross sectional study was done on 19,525 study subjects. All the data in the database of Tigray Health Research Institute was exported to Microsoft excel 2010 and then data verification and filtration were done before exporting to STATA 14.0 for analysis. Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE) logistic regression was used for statistical modeling of viral non suppression.

Results

A total of 5153 (26.39%; 95%CI (25.77%, 27.02)) patients had no viral suppression despite being on ART. Being male (AOR = 1.27, 95% CI: 1.18, 1.37), 15–19 years of age (AOR = 4.86, 95%CI: 3.86, 6.12), patients from primary hospital (AOR = 1.26, 95%CI: 1.05, 1.52), WHO staging II (AOR = 1.31, 95%CI: 1.10, 1.54), poor ART adherence level (AOR = 2.56, 95%CI: 1.97, 3.33), fair ART adherence level (AOR = 1.61, 95%CI: 1.36, 1.90), baseline CD-4 count of < 200 cells/micro liter (AOR = 1.33, 95%CI: 1.14, 1.54), recent CD-4 count of < 200 cells/micro liter (AOR = 3.78, 95%CI: 3.34, 4.27), regimen types: 1c (AZT-3TC-NVP) (AOR = 1.32, 95%CI: 1.22, 1.44), 2 h (TDF-3TC-ATV/R) (AOR = 1.79, 95%CI: 1.27, 2.52) and declined immunological responses after ART initiation (AOR = 1.45, 95%CI: 1.30, 1.61) were significantly associated with viral non-suppression.

Conclusions

The virological non suppression was high which makes it less likely to achieve the third 90 UNAIDS target. Being male, patients with WHO staging II and poor ART adherence level were significantly associated with viral non suppression. Therefore, intensive adherence support and counseling should be provided. It is also a high time to determine the antiretroviral drugs resistance pattern given the fact that a large number of patients had virological non suppression.

Predictors of loss to follow-up in art experienced patients in Nigeria: a 13 year review (2004-2017)

BACKGROUND

Expanded access to antiretroviral therapy (ART) leads to improved HIV/AIDS treatment outcomes in Nigeria, however, increasing rates of loss to follow-up among those on ART is threatening optimal standard achievement. Therefore, this retrospective cross-sectional study is aimed at identifying correlates and predictors of loss to follow-up in patients commencing ART in a large HIV program in Nigeria.

METHODS

Records of all patients from 432 US CDC Presidents Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) supported facilities across 10 States and FCT who started ART from 2004 to 2017 were used for this study. Bivariate and multivariate analysis of the demographic and clinical parameters of all patients was conducted using STATA version 14 to determine correlates and predictors of loss to follow-up.

RESULTS

Within the review period, 245,257 patients were ever enrolled on anti-retroviral therapy. 150,191 (61.2%) remained on treatment, 10,960 (4.5%) were transferred out to other facilities, 6926 (2.8%) died, 2139 (0.9%) self-terminated treatment and 75,041 (30.6%) had a loss to follow-up event captured. Males (OR: 1.16), Non-pregnant female (OR: 4.55), Patients on ≥ 3-monthly ARV refills (OR: 1.32), Patients with un-suppressed viral loads on ART (OR: 4.52), patients on adult 2nd line regimen (OR: 1.23) or pediatric on 1st line regimen (OR: 1.70) were significantly more likely to be lost to follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Despite increasing access to anti-retroviral therapy, loss to follow-up is still a challenge in the HIV program in Nigeria. Differentiated care approaches that will focus on males, non-pregnant females and paediatrics is encouraged. Reducing months of Anti-retroviral drug refill to less than 3 months is advocated for increased patient adherence.

Body mass index variation over time and associated factors among HIV-positive adults on second-line ART in north-west Ethiopia: a retrospective follow-up study

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the evolution of body mass index (BMI) of HIV-positive adults on second-line antiretroviral therapy (ART) over time and factors affecting it in north-west Ethiopia.

DESIGN

An institution-based retrospective follow-up study was conducted using data extracted from 1016 patient cards from February 2008 to February 2016.

SETTING

Eight referral hospitals from Amhara region, Ethiopia were included.

PARTICIPANTS

HIV patients who started second-line ART.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Change in BMI since starting second-line ART.

RESULTS

Five hundred and thirty-eight (52.95%) participants were males and the median age of the participants was 33 years (IQR: 28; 39). The median follow-up time was 18 months (IQR: 5.2; 32.2). The average change of BMI showed linear increase over time. The amount of BMI increment or decrement according to each variable was shown as β coefficients. Treatment duration (β=0.013, 95% CI 0.004 to 0.022), isoniazid prophylaxis (β=0.87, 95% CI 0.32 to 1.42), cotrimoxazole prophylaxis (β=0.63, 95% CI 0.08 to 1.19), ambulatory functional status (β=-1.16, 95% CI -1.95 to 1.31), bedridden functional status (β=-1.83, 95% CI -2.47 to 1.21), WHO stage III (β=-0.42, 95% CI -0.65 to 0.20), WHO stage IV (β=-0.62, 95% CI -1.02 to 0.22), CD4 count (β=0.001, 95% CI 0.0008 to 0.0015), and time interaction of variables like tertiary educational status (β=0.02, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.04), ambulatory functional status (β=0.03, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.05) and WHO stages III (β=0.01, 95% CI 0.007 to 0.02) were found to be significant predictors.

CONCLUSION

The BMI of patients has shown linear increment over the treatment time. Factors affecting it have been identified but its effect on cardiovascular disease needs further study.

Social barriers in accessing care by clients who returned to HIV care after transient loss to follow-up

Background

People living with HIV (PLHIV) constantly need to address social issues such as the cost of accessing care, stigma, and lack of social support which impacts on their level of adherence to clinic visits or antiretroviral treatment leading to adverse health outcomes. This study examined the social barriers in accessing care by clients who returned to care after transient loss to follow-up.

Methods

This study was a cross-sectional survey of PLHIV from 99 US CDC PEPFAR-supported HIV clinics located in 10 of Nigeria’s 36 states and Federal Capital Territory, who were momentarily lost to follow-up but returned to care after tracking. Demographic and social factors at bivariate and multivariate level were analyzed to determine the predictors of difficulty in accessing HIV clinics.

Results

Of the 7483 clients tracked, 1386 (18.5%) were confirmed to be in care, 2846 (38.2%) were lost to follow-up (LTFU), 562 (7.5%) returned to care, 843 (11.2%) discontinued care, 827 (11.1%) transferred out to other facilities for care, 514 (6.8%) had died while 505 (6.7%) could not be reached by phone or located at their addresses. 438 out of the 562 (78%) returnee PLHIV gave consent and participated in the study. 216 out of the 438 (50%) clients who returned to care were transiently lost to follow-up because they had difficulty accessing their HIV clinic. Also, 126/438 (29%) of returnee PLHIV were previously lost to follow-up. Difficult access to a HIV clinic was significantly influenced by prior LTFU (OR 2.5 [95% CI 1.3–4.8], p = 0.008), history of being stigmatized (OR 2.1 [95% CI 1.1–3.8], p = 0.02), lack of social or financial support (OR 2.8 [95% CI 1.3–6.0], p = 0.01) and perceived in-adequate healthcare workers support (OR 3.8 [95% CI 1.2–11.2], p = 0.02). Age (p = 0.218) and gender (p = 0.771) were not significant determinants of difficult access to an HIV clinic.

Conclusion

Stigma, lack of support and prior loss to follow-up event are essential factors affecting retention in care. Social constructs such as home-based visits, community-based care services, transportation subsidies, and robust strong social systems should be built into HIV service delivery models to improve retention in care of people on HIV treatment. The authors advocate for further studies on how differentiated care models impact on retention of patients in care.

Evaluation of the clinical outcomes of the Test and Treat strategy to implement Treat All in Nigeria: Results from the Nigeria Multi-Center ART Study

In December 2016, the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Health updated its HIV guidelines to a Treat All approach, expanding antiretroviral therapy (ART) eligibility to all individuals with HIV infection, regardless of CD4+ cell count, and recommending ART be initiated within two weeks of HIV diagnosis (i.e., the Test and Treat strategy). The Test and Treat policy was first piloted in 32 local government areas (LGAs). The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical outcomes of adult patients initiated on ART within two weeks of HIV diagnosis during this pilot. We conducted a retrospective cohort analysis of patients who initiated ART within two weeks of new HIV diagnosis between October 2015 and September 2016 in eight randomly selected LGAs participating in the Test and Treat pilot study. 2,652 adults were newly diagnosed and initiated on ART within two weeks of HIV diagnosis. Of these patients, 8% had documentation of a 12-month viral load measurement, and 13% had documentation of a six-month viral load measurement. Among Test and Treat patients with a documented viral load, 79% were suppressed (≤400 copies/ml) at six months and 78% were suppressed at 12 months. By 12 months post-ART initiation, 34% of the patients who initiated ART under the Test and Treat strategy were lost to follow-up. The median CD4 cell count among patients initiating ART within two weeks of HIV diagnosis was 323 cells/mm³ (interquartile range, 161–518). While randomized controlled trials have demonstrated that Test and Treat strategies can improve patient retention and increase viral suppression compared to standard of care, these findings indicate that the effectiveness of Test and Treat in some settings may be far lower than the efficacy demonstrated in randomized controlled trials. Significant attention to the way Test and Treat strategies are implemented, monitored, and improved particularly related to early retention, can help expand access to ART for all patients.

Are there differences in HIV retention in care between female and male patients in Indonesia? A multi-state analysis of a retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Little is known about HIV treatment outcomes in Indonesia, which has one of the most rapidly growing HIV epidemics worldwide.

METHODS

We examined possible differences in loss to follow-up (LTFU) and survival between HIV-infected females and males over a 7-year period in an HIV clinic in Bandung, West Java. Data imputation was performed on missing covariates and a multi-state Cox regression was used to investigate the effects of sex and other covariates on patient transitions among four states: (1) clinic enrollment with HIV, (2) initiation/continuation/re-initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART), (3) LTFU, and (4) death.

RESULTS

We followed 3215 patients (33% females), for a total of 8430 person-years. ART was used by 59% of patients at some point. One-year retention was 73% for females and 77% for males (p = 0.06). One-year survival was 98% for both females and males (p = 0.15). Females experienced a higher relative hazard to transition from HIV to LTFU (adjusted hazard ratio 1.21; 95% confidence interval 1.00-1.45), but this decreased after adjustments for clinical variables (aHR 0.94; 95% CI 0.79-1.11). Similarly, a lower relative hazard in females to transition from ART to death (aHR 0.59; 95% CI 0.35-0.99) decreased after adjustments for demographic variables.

CONCLUSION

This Indonesian cohort has low ART uptake and poor overall pre- and post-ART retention. Female-male differences in survival and retention were gone after adjusting for clinical and sociodemographic factors such as CD4 count and education level. Efforts should be made to improve retention among patients with lower education.

TLR10 Senses HIV-1 Proteins and Significantly Enhances HIV-1 Infection

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a crucial role in innate immunity and provide a first line of host defense against invading pathogens. Of the identified human TLRs, TLR10 remains an orphan receptor whose ligands and functions are poorly understood. In the present study, we sought to evaluate the level of TLR10 expression in breast milk (BM) and explore its potential function in the context of HIV-1 infection. We evaluated HIV-1-infected (Nigerian: n = 40) and uninfected (Nigerian: n = 27; Canadian: n = 15) BM samples for TLR expression (i.e., TLR10, TLR2, and TLR1) and report here that HIV-1-infected BM from Nigerian women showed significantly higher levels of TLR10, TLR1, and TLR2 expression. Moreover, the level of TLR10 expression in HIV-1-infected BM was upregulated by over 100-fold compared to that from uninfected control women. In vitro studies using TZMbl cells demonstrated that TLR10 overexpression contributes to higher HIV-1 infection and proviral DNA integration. Conversely, TLR10 inhibition significantly decreased HIV-1 infection. Notably, HIV-1 gp41 was recognized as a TLR10 ligand, leading to the induction of IL-8 and NF-κBα activation. The identification of a TLR10 ligand and its involvement in HIV-1 infection enhances our current understanding of HIV-1 replication and may assist in the development of improved future therapeutic strategies.

Long Term Exposure to Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate-Containing Antiretroviral Therapy Is Associated with Renal Impairment in an African Cohort of HIV-Infected Adults

OBJECTIVES AND METHOD

There are growing concerns of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF)-associated renal toxicity. We evaluated the effect of long-term TDF exposure on renal function in a cohort of HIV-1-infected Nigerians between 2006 and 2015. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify predictors of renal impairment at different time over 144 weeks of antiretroviral therapy (ART).

RESULTS

Data of 4897 patients, median age 42 years (interquartile range: 36-49), and 61% females were analyzed. The prevalence of renal impairment increased from 10% at week 24 to 45% at 144 weeks in TDF-exposed participants compared to an increase from 8% at 24 weeks to 14% at 144 weeks in TDF-unexposed participants. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate exposure predicted the risk of renal impairment at 144 weeks of ART (odds ratio: 2.36; 95% confidence interval: 1.28-4.34).

CONCLUSION

Long-term exposure to TDF-based ART significantly increases the likelihood of renal impairment. The continued use of TDF-based regimen in our setting should be reviewed. We recommend the urgent introduction of tenofovir alafenamide-based regimen in the HIV treatment guidelines of Nigeria and other resource-limited countries.

Geospatial Analysis of Risk Factors Contributing to Loss to Follow-up in Cleft Lip/Palate Care

Background

Multidisciplinary cleft care depends on follow-up at specified time points to monitor and address functional or aesthetic concerns that may arise during a child's development. However, loss to follow-up (LTFU) is common and can lead to missed opportunities for therapeutic and surgical intervention. This study explores clinical, demographic, and geographic determinants of LTFU in cleft care.

Methods

Medical records were retrospectively evaluated for 558 pediatric patients of a single mid-volume cleft team. The primary outcome was LTFU. Spatial dependency was evaluated using variograms. The probability of LTFU was assessed using a generalized linear geostatistical model within a Bayesian framework. Risk maps were plotted to identify vulnerable communities within our state at higher risk of LTFU.

Results

Younger age at last encounter was a strong predictor of LTFU (P < 0.0001), even when ignoring spatial dependency among observations. When accounting for spatial dependency, lower socioeconomic status [OR = 0.98; 95% CI = (0.97-0.99)] and cleft phenotype [OR = 0.55; 95% CI = (0.36, 0.81)] were significant predictors of LTFU. Distance from the cleft team and rural/urban designation were not statistically significant predictors. Cartographic representation of predicted probability of LTFU revealed vulnerable communities across our state, including in the immediate vicinity of our cleft center.

Conclusions

Geostatistical methods are able to identify risk factors missed by traditional statistical analysis. Knowledge of vulnerable populations allow a cleft team to allocate more resources toward high-risk areas to rectify or prevent deficiencies in care.

Validity of reported retention in antiretroviral therapy after roll-out to peripheral facilities in Mozambique: Results of a retrospective national cohort analysis

Background

Retention in anti-retroviral therapy (ART) presents a challenge in sub-Saharan Africa. In Mozambique, after roll-out to peripheral facilities, the 12-month retention rate was reported mostly from sites with an electronic patient tracking system (EPTS), representing only 65% of patients. We conducted a nationally representative study, compared 12-month retention at EPTS and non-EPTS sites, and its predictors.

Methods

Applying a proportionate to population size sampling strategy, we obtained a nationally representative sample of patients who initiated ART between January 2013 and June 2014. We calculated weighted proportions of the patients’ status at 12 months after ART initiation, and 12-month incidence of lost to follow-up (LTFU) and death. We assessed determinants of LTFU and death by calculating adjusted hazard ratios (AHR) through multivariate cox-proportional hazard models.

Results

Among 19,297 patients sampled, 54.3% were still active, 33.1% LTFU, 2.0% dead, 2.6% transferred-out and 8.0% had unknown status, 12 months after ART initiation. Total attrition rate (LTFU or dead) was 45.5/100PY, higher at facilities without EPTS (51.8/100PY) than with EPTS (37.7/100PY). Clinical stage IV (AHR = 1.7), CD4 count ≤150 (AHR = 1.3) and being pregnant (AHR = 1.6) were significantly associated with LTFU. Clinical stage III or IV (AHR = 2.1 and 3.8), CD4 count ≤150 (AHR = 3.0), not being pregnant (AHR = 3.0), and ART regimens with stavudine (AHR = 4.28) were significantly associated with deaths. Patients enrolled in adherence support groups were 4.6 times less likely to be LTFU, but the number (n = 174) was too small to be significant (p = 0.273).

Conclusion

Retention in ART was substantially lower at non-EPTS sites. EPTS should be expanded to all ART sites to facilitate comprehensive routine monitoring of retention in care. Retention in Mozambique is low and needs to be improved, especially among pregnant women and patients with advanced disease at ART initiation. The effect of ART adherence support groups needs to be further monitored.

Explaining the heterogeneity in average costs per HIV/AIDS patient in Nigeria: The role of supply-side and service delivery characteristics

Objective

We estimated the average annual cost per patient of ART per facility (unit cost) in Nigeria, described the variation in costs across facilities, and identified factors associated with this variation.

Methods

We used facility-level data of 80 facilities in Nigeria, collected between December 2014 and May 2015. We estimated unit costs at each facility as the ratio of total costs (the sum of costs of staff, recurrent inputs and services, capital, training, laboratory tests, and antiretroviral and TB treatment drugs) divided by the annual number of patients. We applied linear regressions to estimate factors associated with ART cost per patient.

Results

The unit ART cost in Nigeria was $157 USD nationally and the facility-level mean was $231 USD. The study found a wide variability in unit costs across facilities. Variations in costs were explained by number of patients, level of care, task shifting (shifting tasks from doctors to less specialized staff, mainly nurses, to provide ART) and provider´s competence. The study illuminated the potentially important role that management practices can play in improving the efficiency of ART services.

Conclusions

Our study identifies characteristics of services associated with the most efficient implementation of ART services in Nigeria. These results will help design efficient program scale-up to deliver comprehensive HIV services in Nigeria by distinguishing features linked to lower unit costs.

Virological and immunological failure of HAART and associated risk factors among adults and adolescents in the Tigray region of Northern Ethiopia

Background

Human immunodeficiency virus/Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome associated morbidity and mortality has reduced significantly since the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy. As a result of increasing access to highly active antiretroviral therapy, the survival and quality of life of the patients has significantly improved globally. Despite this promising result, regular monitoring of people on antiretroviral therapy is recommended to ensure whether there is an effective treatment response or not. This study was designed to assess virological and immunological failure of highly active antiretroviral therapy users among adults and adolescents in the Tigray region of Northern Ethiopia, where scanty data are available.

Methods

A retrospective follow up study was conducted from September 1 to December 30, 2016 to assess the magnitude and factors associated with virological and immunological failure among 260 adults and adolescents highly active antiretroviral therapy users who started first line ART between January 1, 2008 to March 1, 2016. A standardized questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic and clinical data. SPSS Version21 statistical software was used for analysis. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify factors associated to virological and immunological failure. Statistical association was declared significant if p-value was ≤ 0.05.

Result

A total of 30 (11.5%) and 17 (6.5%) participants experienced virological and immunological failure respectively in a median time of 36 months of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Virological failure was associated with non-adherence to medications, aged < 40 years old, having CD4⁺ T-cells count < 250 cells/μL and male gender. Similarly, immunological failure was associated with non-adherence, tuberculosis co-infection and Human immunodeficiency virus RNA ≥1000 copies/mL.

Conclusions

The current result shows that immunological and virological failure is a problem in a setting where highly active antiretroviral therapy has been largely scale up. The problem is more in patients with poor adherence. This will in turn affect the global targets of 90% viral suppression by 2020. This may indicate the need for more investment and commitment to improving patient adherence in the study area.

High rates of loss to follow-up during the first year of pre-antiretroviral therapy for HIV patients at sites providing pre-ART care in Nigeria, 2004-2012

Background

With about 3.4 million HIV-infected persons, Nigeria has the second highest number of people living with HIV (PLHIV) in the world. However, antiretroviral treatment (ART) coverage in Nigeria remains low with only 748,846 (22%) of PLHIV on ART by the end of 2014. Retention of HIV-infected patients in pre-ART care is essential to ensure timely ART initiation. We assessed outcomes of patients enrolled in Nigeria’s pre-ART program during 2004–2012.

Methods

We conducted a nationally representative retrospective cohort study among adults (≥15 years old), enrolling in pre-ART programs supported by the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief in Nigeria. A total of 35 sites enrolling ≥50 patients in pre-ART were selected using probability proportional-to-size sampling; 2,415 eligible medical records at these sites were randomly selected for abstraction. Determinants of loss to follow-up (LTFU) and mortality during pre-ART care were estimated using Cox proportional hazards regression models.

Results

The median age at enrollment was 32 years (interquartile range (IQR) 27–40). A total of 1,216 (51.4%) initiated ART by the time of data abstraction. Among the remaining 1,199 patients, 898 (74.9%) had been LTFU, 180 (15.0%) were alive and in pre-ART care, 71 (5.9%) had died, 50 (4.2%) had transferred out or stopped care. Baseline markers of advanced disease, including weight <45 kg (adjusted hazard ration (AHR) = 4.23; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.51–15.58) and more advanced WHO disease stage, were predictive of pre-ART mortality. Compared with patients aged 15–24, patients aged 35–44 (AHR = 0.67; 95% CI: 1.0.47–0.95) and age 45–54 (AHR = 0.66; 95% CI: 0.48–0.91) had lower LTFU rates. Compared with attending facilities in North Central geopolitical zone, attending facility locations in South East (AHR = 0.44; 95% CI: 0.24–0.83) was protective against LTFU.

Conclusions

About half of patients enrolling in HIV program during 2004–2012 in Nigeria had not initiated ART by 2013. Key strategies to improve early ART initiation among pre-ART enrollees include implementation of the WHO test and treat guidelines, earlier HIV testing, and better monitoring to improve ART initiation rates. Further research to understand regional variations in pre-ART outcomes is warranted.

Incidence and predictors of tuberculosis among HIV-infected adults after initiation of antiretroviral therapy in Nigeria, 2004-2012

Background

Nigeria had the most AIDS-related deaths worldwide in 2014 (170,000), and 46% were associated with tuberculosis (TB). Although treatment of people living with HIV (PLHIV) with antiretroviral therapy (ART) reduces TB-associated morbidity and mortality, incident TB can occur while on ART. We estimated incidence and characterized factors associated with TB after ART initiation in Nigeria.

Methods

We analyzed retrospective cohort data from a nationally representative sample of adult patients on ART. Data were abstracted from 3,496 patient records, and analyses were weighted and controlled for a complex survey design. We performed domain analyses on patients without documented TB disease and used a Cox proportional hazard model to assess factors associated with TB incidence after ART.

Results

At ART initiation, 3,350 patients (95.8%) were not receiving TB treatment. TB incidence after ART initiation was 0.57 per 100 person-years, and significantly higher for patients with CD4<50/μL (adjusted hazard ratio [AHR]: 4.2, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.4–12.7) compared with CD4≥200/μL. Patients with suspected but untreated TB at ART initiation and those with a history of prior TB were more likely to develop incident TB (AHR: 12.2, 95% CI: 4.5–33.5 and AHR: 17.6, 95% CI: 3.5–87.9, respectively).

Conclusion

Incidence of TB among PLHIV after ART initiation was low, and predicted by advanced HIV, prior TB, and suspected but untreated TB. Study results suggest a need for improved TB screening and diagnosis, particularly among high-risk PLHIV initiating ART, and reinforce the benefit of early ART and other TB prevention efforts.

Correction: Outcomes of Nigeria's HIV/AIDS Treatment Program for Patients Initiated on Antiretroviral Treatment between 2004-2012

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0165528.].