Space Use and Habitat Selection by Resident and Transient Red Wolves (Canis rufus)

Historical and current distribution ranges of the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus)

The current distribution of Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) is available on the IUCN Red List of Threatened species website; however, nothing is known about the historical extent and occurrence of this species. Therefore, we aimed to understand the historical distribution of the Asiatic black bear, and map and estimate its total size, to compare it with that of species current distribution. In addition, we analyzed a network of protected areas in the past and current ranges of the species. We employed geographic information system (GIS) software to reconstruct and measure the historical range of the Asiatic black bear, comparing past and current ranges to analyze its expected range contraction. The main focus of the study was to enhance our understanding of the species' historical distribution, contributing to better conservation strategies for the present and future perspectives. The utilization of GIS tools facilitates a comprehensive exploration of the factors influencing the species' decline, ultimately aiding in more effective management and conservation efforts. We used published records of black bear's occurrence in anywhere in history to reconstruct its historical distribution range. Results revealed that the Asiatic black bear was more widely distributed in historical times and its range spanned across approximately 15.86 million km2 while its current range is limited to approximately 7.85 million km2, showing a range contraction of approximately 49.5% (8.02 million km2 reduced). The total protected areas in the historical range of the species were found to be N = 9933, with total size of 0.946 million km2, against N = 6580 (0.667 million km2) that are present in the current range. Approximately 27.5% of the protected areas have lost the Asiatic black bear since historical times.

Habitat selection of resident and non-resident gray wolves: implications for habitat connectivity

Habitat selection studies facilitate assessing and predicting species distributions and habitat connectivity, but habitat selection can vary temporally and among individuals, which is often ignored. We used GPS telemetry data from 96 Gray wolves (Canis lupus) in the western Great Lakes region of the USA to assess differences in habitat selection while wolves exhibited resident (territorial) or non-resident (dispersing or floating) movements and discuss implications for habitat connectivity. We used a step-selection function (SSF) to assess habitat selection by wolves exhibiting resident or non-resident movements, and modeled circuit connectivity throughout the western Great Lakes region. Wolves selected for natural land cover and against areas with high road densities, with no differences in selection among wolves when resident, dispersing, or floating. Similar habitat selection between resident and non-resident wolves may be due to similarity in environmental conditions, when non-resident movements occur largely within established wolf range rather than near the periphery or beyond the species range. Alternatively, non-resident wolves may travel through occupied territories because higher food availability or lower human disturbance outweighs risks posed by conspecifics. Finally, an absence of differences in habitat selection between resident and non-resident wolf movements may be due to other unknown reasons. We recommend considering context-dependency when evaluating differences in movements and habitat use between resident and non-resident individuals. Our results also provide independent validation of a previous species distribution model and connectivity analysis suggesting most potential wolf habitat in the western Great Lakes region is occupied, with limited connectivity to unoccupied habitat.

Anthropogenic activities and age class mediate carnivore habitat selection in a human-dominated landscape

Human activities increasingly challenge wild animal populations by disrupting ecological connectivity and population persistence. Yet, human-modified habitats can provide resources, resulting in selection of disturbed areas by generalist species. To investigate spatial and temporal responses of a generalist carnivore to human disturbance, we investigated habitat selection and diel activity patterns in caracals (Caracal caracal). We GPS-collared 25 adults and subadults in urban and wildland-dominated subregions in Cape Town, South Africa. Selection responses for landscape variables were dependent on subregion, animal age class, and diel period. Contrary to expectations, caracals did not become more nocturnal in urban areas. Caracals increased their selection for proximity to urban areas as the proportion of urban area increased. Differences in habitat selection between urban and wildland caracals suggest that individuals of this generalist species exhibit high behavioral flexibility in response to anthropogenic disturbances that emerge as a function of habitat context.

Confronting spatial capture-recapture models with realistic animal movement simulations

Spatial capture-recapture (SCR) models have emerged as a robust method to estimate the population density of mobile animals. However, model evaluation has generally been based on data simulated from simplified representations of animal space use. Here, we generated data from animal movement simulated from a mechanistic individual-based model, in which movement emerges from the individual's response to a changing environment (i.e., from the bottom-up), driven by key ecological processes (e.g., resource memory and territoriality). We drew individual detection data from simulated movement trajectories and fitted detection data sets to a basic, resource selection and transience SCR model, as well as their variants accounting for resource-driven heterogeneity in density and detectability. Across all SCR models, abundance estimates were robust to multiple, but low-degree violations of the specified movement processes (e.g., resource selection). SCR models also successfully captured the positive effect of resource quality on density. However, covariate models failed to capture the finer scale effect of resource quality on detectability and space use, which may be a consequence of the low temporal resolution of SCR data sets and/or model misspecification. We show that home-range size is challenging to infer from the scale parameter alone, compounded by reliance on conventional measures of "true" home-range size that are highly sensitive to sampling regime. Additionally, we found the transience model challenging to fit, probably due to data sparsity and violation of the assumption of normally distributed inter-occasion movement of activity centers, suggesting that further development of the model is required for general applicability. Our results showed that further integration of complex movement into SCR models may not be necessary for population estimates of abundance when the level of individual heterogeneity induced by the underlying movement process is low, but appears warranted in terms of accurately revealing finer scale patterns of ecological and movement processes. Further investigation into whether this holds true in populations with other types of realistic movement characteristics is merited. Our study provides a framework to generate realistic SCR data sets to develop and evaluate more complex movement processes in SCR models.

The natural history and ecology of melanism in red wolf and coyote populations of the southeastern United States – evidence for Gloger’s rule

Background

Gloger’s rule postulates that animals should be darker colored in warm and humid regions where dense vegetation and dark environments are common. Although rare in Canis populations, melanism in wolves is more common in North America than other regions globally and is believed to follow Gloger’s rule. In the temperate forests of the southeastern United States, historical records of red wolf (Canis rufus) and coyote (Canis latrans) populations document a consistent presence of melanism. Today, the melanistic phenotype is extinct in red wolves while occurring in coyotes and red wolf-coyote hybrids who occupy the red wolf's historical range. To assess if Gloger’s rule could explain the occurrence and maintenance of melanistic phenotypes in Canis taxa, we investigated differences in morphology, habitat selection, and survival associated with pelage color using body measurements, GPS tracking data, and long-term capture-mark-recapture and radio-telemetry data collected on coyotes and hybrids across the southeastern United States.

Results

We found no correlation between morphometrics and pelage color for Canis taxa. However, we observed that melanistic coyotes and hybrids experienced greater annual survival than did their gray conspecifics. Furthermore, we observed that melanistic coyotes maintained larger home ranges and exhibited greater selection for areas with dense canopy cover and wetlands than did gray coyotes.

Conclusions

In the southeastern United States, pelage color influenced habitat selection by coyotes and annual survival of coyotes and hybrids providing evidence that Gloger’s rule is applicable to canids inhabiting regions with dense canopy cover and wetlands. Greater annual survival rates observed in melanistic Canis may be attributed to better concealment in areas with dense canopy cover such as coastal bottomland forests. We suggest that the larger home range sizes of melanistic coyotes may reflect the trade-off of reduced foraging efficiency in lower quality wetland habitat for improved survival. Larger home ranges and differential use of land cover by melanistic coyotes may facilitate weak assortative mating in eastern coyote populations, in which melanistic animals may have lower success of finding compatible mates in comparison to gray conspecifics. We offer that our observations provide a partial explanation for why melanism is relatively low (< 10%) but consistent within coyote populations throughout southeastern parts of their range.

Evaluating how management policies affect red wolf mortality and disappearance

Poaching is the major cause of death for large carnivores in several regions, contributing to their global endangerment. The traditional hypothesis used in wildlife management (killing for tolerance) suggests reducing protections for a species will decrease poaching. However, recent studies suggest reducing protections will instead increase poaching (facilitated illegal killing) and its concealment (facilitated cryptic poaching). Here, we build survival and competing risk models for mortality and disappearances of adult collared red wolves (Canis rufus) released in North Carolina, USA from 1987 to 2020 (n = 526). We evaluated how changes in federal and state policies protecting red wolves influenced the hazard and incidence of mortality and disappearance. We observed substantial increases in the hazard and incidence of red wolf reported poaching, and smaller increases in disappearances, during periods of reduced federal and state protections (including liberalizing hunting of coyotes, C. latrans); white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and American black bear (Ursus americanus) hunting seasons; and management phases. Observed increases in hazard (85-256%) and incidence of reported poaching (56-243%) support the 'facilitated illegal killing' hypothesis. We suggest improving protective policies intended to conserve endangered species generally and large carnivores in particular, to mitigate environmental crimes and generally improve the protection of wild animals.

Evaluating how management policies affect red wolf mortality and disappearance

Poaching is the major cause of death for large carnivores in several regions, contributing to their global endangerment. The traditional hypothesis used in wildlife management (killing for tolerance) suggests reducing protections for a species will decrease poaching. However, recent studies suggest reducing protections will instead increase poaching (facilitated illegal killing) and its concealment (facilitated cryptic poaching). Here, we build survival and competing risk models for mortality and disappearances of adult collared red wolves (Canis rufus) released in North Carolina, USA from 1987 to 2020 (n = 526). We evaluated how changes in federal and state policies protecting red wolves influenced the hazard and incidence of mortality and disappearance. We observed substantial increases in the hazard and incidence of red wolf reported poaching, and smaller increases in disappearances, during periods of reduced federal and state protections (including liberalizing hunting of coyotes, C. latrans); white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and American black bear (Ursus americanus) hunting seasons; and management phases. Observed increases in hazard (85-256%) and incidence of reported poaching (56-243%) support the 'facilitated illegal killing' hypothesis. We suggest improving protective policies intended to conserve endangered species generally and large carnivores in particular, to mitigate environmental crimes and generally improve the protection of wild animals.

Evaluating how management policies affect red wolf mortality and disappearance

Poaching is the major cause of death for large carnivores in several regions, contributing to their global endangerment. The traditional hypothesis used in wildlife management (killing for tolerance) suggests reducing protections for a species will decrease poaching. However, recent studies suggest reducing protections will instead increase poaching (facilitated illegal killing) and its concealment (facilitated cryptic poaching). Here, we build survival and competing risk models for mortality and disappearances of adult collared red wolves (Canis rufus) released in North Carolina, USA from 1987 to 2020 (n = 526). We evaluated how changes in federal and state policies protecting red wolves influenced the hazard and incidence of mortality and disappearance. We observed substantial increases in the hazard and incidence of red wolf reported poaching, and smaller increases in disappearances, during periods of reduced federal and state protections (including liberalizing hunting of coyotes, C. latrans); white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and American black bear (Ursus americanus) hunting seasons; and management phases. Observed increases in hazard (85-256%) and incidence of reported poaching (56-243%) support the 'facilitated illegal killing' hypothesis. We suggest improving protective policies intended to conserve endangered species generally and large carnivores in particular, to mitigate environmental crimes and generally improve the protection of wild animals.

Space Use by Woolly Wolf Canis lupus chanco in Gangotri National Park, Western Himalaya, India

The woolly wolf Canis lupus chanco is increasingly being accepted as a unique taxon that needs immediate protection and management; however, information on its ecology remains limited across its range. We used camera trapping data set of 4 years (2015–2019) to investigate seasonal activity patterns and space use and assessed woolly wolf food habits in the Gangotri National Park, western Himalaya, India. We used generalized linear mixed models to assess the distribution of the wolf about prey, seasonal livestock grazing, human presence, habitat, and seasons. We observed a positive association with elevation and a negative response to an increase in ruggedness. The capture of wolves increased in winters, indicating a possible effect of snow on the ranging pattern. Spatial avoidance to anthropogenic pressure was not evident in our study; however, temporal avoidance was observed. The activity pattern of the wolf varied among seasons. Wolves were mostly active in the morning and late evening hours in summer and showed a diurnal activity pattern in winter. A less diverse diet was observed where the mean percentage frequency of occurrence and relative biomass was highest for bharal, followed by livestock. Himalayan marmot Marmota himalayana, birds, and rodents also form minor constituents to the diet. Synthesizing all three factors (space, diet, and activity), it may be stated that the wolf presence in the region is influenced by both wild prey availability and seasonality. Therefore, conservation of woolly wolves would require securing a vast landscape with optimal wild prey.

Estimating poaching risk for the critically endangered wild red wolf (Canis rufus)

The reintroduced red wolf (Canis rufus) population in northeastern North Carolina declined to 7 known wolves by October 2020, the majority of which is due to poaching (illegal killing), the major component of verified anthropogenic mortality in this and many other carnivore populations. Poaching is still not well understood and is often underestimated, partly as a result of cryptic poaching, when poachers conceal evidence. Cryptic poaching inhibits our understanding of the causes and consequences of anthropogenic mortality, which is important to conservation as it can inform us about future population patterns within changing political and human landscapes. We estimate risk for marked adult red wolves of 5 causes of death (COD: legal, nonhuman, unknown, vehicle and poached) and disappearance, describe variation in COD in relation to hunting season, and compare time to disappearance or death. We include unknown fates in our risk estimates. We found that anthropogenic COD accounted for 0.78-0.85 of 508 marked animals, including poaching and cryptic poaching, which we estimated at 0.51-0.64. Risk of poaching and disappearance was significantly higher during hunting season. Mean time from collaring until nonhuman COD averaged 376 days longer than time until poached and 642 days longer than time until disappearance. Our estimates of risk differed from prior published estimates, as expected by accounting for unknown fates explicitly. We quantify the effects on risk for three scenarios for unknown fates, which span conservative to most likely COD. Implementing proven practices that prevent poaching or hasten successful reintroduction may reverse the decline to extinction in the wild of this critically endangered population. Our findings add to a growing literature on endangered species protections and enhancing the science used to measure poaching worldwide.

Habitat use and selection patterns inform habitat conservation priorities of an endangered large carnivore in southern Europe

Understanding the habitat use and selection patterns of endangered species is essential in developing management measures that will protect critical habitat and mitigate human-wildlife conflicts. This understanding is particularly important in areas with high anthropogenic pressures. To understand the ecological role of various habitat types in the conservation of an endangered large carnivore in southern Europe, with its distinct environmental conditions and predominantly anthropogenic landscapes, we studied 18 GPS-collared brown bears Ursus arctos in Greece. We examined the use and selection of habitats according to age and sex categories and behavioral status during 5 ecologically defined seasons. Areas with rough terrain were identified as important refuge areas and were used by all bears in late hyperphagia and emergence. All bears used areas closer to human-related habitat features during the night. Habitat selection was positive for areas with rough terrain and naturalized (i.e. abandoned or not intensive) crops and areas close to water courses, while high-altitude areas and roads were avoided. The selection or avoidance of other habitats varied across bear categories and between stationary and moving behavior. We recommend that the results of the study be used to develop guidelines for species conservation and allow for prioritizing management actions that will promote the conservation of bears in Greece. In particular, the habitat use patterns provide information on how to limit interactions between humans and bears in space and/or time, while the habitat selection patterns indicate suitable habitats that should be protected/improved based on their importance and ecological role for the species.

Implications of landscape genetics and connectivity of snow leopard in the Nepalese Himalayas for its conservation

The snow leopard is one of the most endangered large mammals. Its population, already low, is declining, most likely due to the consequences of human activity, including a reduction in the size and number of suitable habitats. With climate change, habitat loss may escalate, because of an upward shift in the tree line and concomitant loss of the alpine zone, where the snow leopard lives. Migration between suitable areas, therefore, is important because a decline in abundance in these areas may result in inbreeding, fragmentation of populations, reduction in genetic variation due to habitat fragmentation, loss of connectivity, bottlenecks or genetic drift. Here we use our data collected in Nepal to determine the areas suitable for snow leopards, by using habitat suitability maps, and describe the genetic structure of the snow leopard within and between these areas. We also determine the influence of landscape features on the genetic structure of its populations and reveal corridors connecting suitable areas. We conclude that it is necessary to protect these natural corridors to maintain the possibility of snow leopards’ migration between suitable areas, which will enable gene flow between the diminishing populations and thus maintain a viable metapopulation of snow leopards.

Multiscale consensus habitat modeling for landscape level conservation prioritization

Globally, wide-ranging carnivore populations are imperiled due to human-caused habitat fragmentation. Where populations are fragmented, habitat quantification is often the first step in conservation. Presence-only species distribution models can provide robust results when proper scales and data are considered. We aimed to identify habitat for a fragmented carnivore population at two scales and aid conservation prioritization by identifying potential future habitat fragmentation. We used location data and environmental variables to develop a consensus model using Maxent and Mahalanobis distance to identify black bear (Ursus americanus floridanus) habitat across Florida, USA. We compared areas of habitat to areas of predicted sea level rise, development, and protected areas. Local-scale models performed better than state-scale models. We identified 23,798 km2 of habitat at the local-scale and 45,703 km2 at the state-scale. Approximately 10% of state- and 14% of local-scale habitat may be inundated by 2100, 16% of state- and 7% of local-scale habitat may be developed, and 54% of state- and 15% of local-scale habitat is unprotected. Results suggest habitat is at risk of fragmentation. Lack of focused conservation and connectivity among bear subpopulations could further fragmentation, and ultimately threaten population stability as seen in other fragmented carnivore populations globally.

Subsidies from anthropogenic resources alter diet, activity, and ranging behavior of an apex predator (Canis lupus)

Acquisition of resources can be costly and individuals are predicted to optimize foraging strategies to maximize net energy gain. Wolves (Canis lupus) would be expected to scavenge on subsidies from anthropogenic resources when these resources provide an energetic benefit over the capture of wild prey. We examined the effects of subsidies from anthropogenic resources in the form of livestock carcass dumps (LCDs) on wolf space use, activity, tortuosity, and diet in portions of North America’s northern hardwood/boreal ecosystem. We fitted 19 wolves with global positioning system collars during May–August of 2009–2011 and 2013–2015. Wolves with LCDs within their home ranges used areas adjacent to LCDs greater than non-LCD sites and had decreased home ranges and activity as compared to wolves without LCDs in their home ranges. Additionally, cattle comprised at least 22% of wolf diet from scavenging in areas with LCDs present as compared to no cattle in the diet of wolves without access to LCDs. Subsidies from anthropogenic resources in the form of LCDs can serve as attractants for wolves and alter wolf diet, activity, and ranging behavior. Apex predators may alter their behavior where subsidies from anthropogenic resources occur and management of these subsidies should be considered when attempting to reduce the impacts of humans on wolf behavior.

Seasonal space use of transient and resident coyotes (Canis latrans) in North Carolina, USA

Coyote (Canis latrans Say, 1823) is a recent immigrant into eastern United States and little is known about the species’ space use and movement in the region. We compared space use and movement of radio-collared coyotes among biological seasons. We captured and collared 30 coyotes from February through May 2011 and collected 85 386 GPS locations through October 2012 at Fort Bragg Military Installation. We defined four biological seasons according to coyote life history: breeding (December–February), gestation (March–May), pup-rearing (June–August), and dispersal (September–November). Out of 27 radio-collared individuals, we identified 10 as transient and 11 as resident based on home-range size and variability across seasons; 6 switched their status and were classified as intermediate. We observed low variability of core-area size across seasons for resident males and females, whereas we documented high variability for transient males. Movement rate of resident coyotes during spring (449.75 m/h) was greater than summer (295.33 m/h), whereas movement rates did not differ between any other seasons. For transient coyotes, movement rate during summer (283 m/h) was less than fall (374.73 m/h), spring (479.85 m/h), and winter (488.5 m/h). Some coyotes adjusted their residency status seasonally and other individuals dispersed large distances (>200 km).

Home range size, vegetation density, and season influences prey use by coyotes (Canis latrans)

To ensure reproductive success, Canis species establish contiguous mosaics of territories in suitable habitats to partition space and defend limiting resources. Consequently, Canis species can exert strong effects on prey populations locally because of their year-round maintenance of territories. We assessed prey use by coyotes (Canis latrans) by sampling scats from within known territories in southeastern Alabama and the Savannah River area of Georgia and South Carolina. We accounted for the size and habitat composition of coyote home ranges to investigate the influence of space use, vegetation density, and habitat type on coyote diets. Coyote use of prey was influenced by a combination of mean monthly temperature, home range size, vegetation density, and hardwood forests. For example, coyote use of adult white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) was associated with cooler months and smaller home ranges, whereas use of rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.) was associated with cooler months, larger home ranges, and less vegetation density. Coyotes in our study relied primarily on nutritionally superior mammalian prey and supplemented their diet with fruit when available, as their use of mammalian prey did not appreciably decrease with increasing use of fruit. We suggest that differential use of prey by coyotes is influenced by habitat heterogeneity within their home ranges, and prey-switching behaviors may stabilize local interactions between coyotes and their food resources to permit stable year-round territories. Given that habitat composition affects coyote prey use, future studies should also incorporate effects of habitat composition on coyote distribution and abundance to further identify coyote influences on prey communities.

Determinants of home range size and space use patterns in a protected wolf (Canis lupus) population in the central Apennines, Italy

Large carnivores are amongst the most susceptible species to human activities, and human-modified environments pose a threat to carnivore conservation. Wolves (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) in the central Apennines, Italy, have coexisted with humans since historic times and represent a good case study to assess their spatiotemporal response to anthropogenic factors. From 2008 to 2010, we investigated the spatial behavior of wolves (seven wolves in five packs and six floaters) in the Abruzzo Lazio and Molise National Park. Orographically corrected annual home ranges of resident wolf packs, estimated through the Brownian bridge movement model, averaged 104 ± 24 km2 (mean ± SD), whereas floaters used two- to fourfold larger areas (293.8–408.7 km2). We did not detect any seasonal effect on home range size, but home ranges were larger during the night and in areas of greater road density, especially during summer. By estimating core areas through an individual-based approach, we also revealed a habitat-mediated response to human presence and activity, as resident wolves preferentially established core areas at greater elevation and in the more forested and inaccessible portions of the home range.

Is the Red Wolf a Listable Unit Under the US Endangered Species Act?

Defining units that can be afforded legal protection is a crucial, albeit challenging, step in conservation planning. As we illustrate with a case study of the red wolf (Canis rufus) from the southeastern United States, this step is especially complex when the evolutionary history of the focal taxon is uncertain. The US Endangered Species Act (ESA) allows listing of species, subspecies, or Distinct Population Segments (DPSs) of vertebrates. Red wolves were listed as an endangered species in 1973, and their status remains precarious. However, some recent genetic studies suggest that red wolves are part of a small wolf species (C. lycaon) specialized for heavily forested habitats of eastern North America, whereas other authors suggest that red wolves arose, perhaps within the last ~400 years, through hybridization between gray wolves (C. lupus) and coyotes (C. latrans). Using published genetic, morphological, behavioral, and ecological data, we evaluated whether each evolutionary hypothesis would lead to a listable unit for red wolves. Although the potential hybrid origin of red wolves, combined with abundant evidence for recent hybridization with coyotes, raises questions about status as a separate species or subspecies, we conclude that under any proposed evolutionary scenario red wolves meet both criteria to be considered a DPS: they are Discrete compared with other conspecific populations, and they are Significant to the taxon to which they belong. As population-level units can qualify for legal protection under endangered-species legislation in many countries throughout the world, this general approach could potentially be applied more broadly.

Size-assortative choice and mate availability influences hybridization between red wolves (Canis rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans)

Anthropogenic hybridization of historically isolated taxa has become a primary conservation challenge for many imperiled species. Indeed, hybridization between red wolves (Canis rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans) poses a significant challenge to red wolf recovery. We considered seven hypotheses to assess factors influencing hybridization between red wolves and coyotes via pair‐bonding between the two species. Because long‐term monogamy and defense of all‐purpose territories are core characteristics of both species, mate choice has long‐term consequences. Therefore, red wolves may choose similar‐sized mates to acquire partners that behave similarly to themselves in the use of space and diet. We observed multiple factors influencing breeding pair formation by red wolves and found that most wolves paired with similar‐sized conspecifics and wolves that formed congeneric pairs with nonwolves (coyotes and hybrids) were mostly female wolves, the smaller of the two sexes. Additionally, we observed that lower red wolf abundance relative to nonwolves and the absence of helpers increased the probability that wolves consorted with nonwolves. However, successful pairings between red wolves and nonwolves were associated with wolves that maintained small home ranges. Behaviors associated with territoriality are energetically demanding and behaviors (e.g., aggressive interactions, foraging, and space use) involved in maintaining territories are influenced by body size. Consequently, we propose the hypothesis that size disparities between consorting red wolves and coyotes influence positive assortative mating and may represent a reproductive barrier between the two species. We offer that it may be possible to maintain wild populations of red wolves in the presence of coyotes if management strategies increase red wolf abundance on the landscape by mitigating key threats, such as human‐caused mortality and hybridization with coyotes. Increasing red wolf abundance would likely restore selection pressures that increase mean body and home‐range sizes of red wolves and decrease hybridization rates via reduced occurrence of congeneric pairs.

Habitat suitability and movement corridors of grey wolf (Canis lupus) in Northern Pakistan

Habitat suitability models are useful to understand species distribution and to guide management and conservation strategies. The grey wolf (Canis lupus) has been extirpated from most of its historic range in Pakistan primarily due to its impact on livestock and livelihoods. We used non-invasive survey data from camera traps and genetic sampling to develop a habitat suitability model for C. lupus in northern Pakistan and to explore the extent of connectivity among populations. We detected suitable habitat of grey wolf using a maximum entropy approach (Maxent ver. 3.4.0) and identified suitable movement corridors using the Circuitscape 4.0 tool. Our model showed high levels of predictive performances, as seen from the values of area under curve (0.971±0.002) and true skill statistics (0.886±0.021). The main predictors for habitat suitability for C. lupus were distances to road, mean temperature of the wettest quarter and distance to river. The model predicted ca. 23,129 km2 of suitable areas for wolf in Pakistan, with much of suitable habitat in remote and inaccessible areas that appeared to be well connected through vulnerable movement corridors. These movement corridors suggest that potentially the wolf range can expand in Pakistan's Northern Areas. However, managing protected areas with stringent restrictions is challenging in northern Pakistan, in part due to heavy dependence of people on natural resources. The habitat suitability map provided by this study can inform future management strategies by helping authorities to identify key conservation areas.