An endophytic Basidiomycete, Grammothele lineata, isolated from Corchorus olitorius, produces paclitaxel that shows cytotoxicity

Paclitaxel - a Product of Fungal Secondary Metabolism or an Artefact?

Taxol (common name: paclitaxel) is an extremely important component of drugs for the treatment of various cancers. Thirty years after the discovery of its effectiveness, a metabolic precursor of Taxol (10-deacetylbaccatin III) is still primarily extracted from needles of European yew trees. In order to meet the considerable demand, hopes were pinned on the possibilities of biotechnological production from the very beginning. In 1993, as if by chance, Taxol was supposedly discovered in fungi that grow endobiotically in yew trees. This finding aroused hopes of biotechnological use to produce fungal Taxol in large quantities in fermenters. It never came to that. Instead, a confusing flood of publications emerged that claimed to have detected Taxol in more and more eukaryotic and even prokaryotic species. However, researchers never reproduced these rather puzzling results, and they could certainly not be applied on an industrial scale. This paper will show that some of the misguided approaches were apparently based on a seemingly careless handling of sparse evidence and on at least questionable publications. Apparently, the desired gold rush of commercial exploitation was seductive. Scientific skepticism as an indispensable core of good scientific practice was often neglected, and the peer review process has not exerted its corrective effect. Self-critical reflection and more healthy skepticism could help to reduce the risk of such aberrations in drug development. This article uses this case study as a striking example to show what can be learned from the Taxol case in terms of research ethics and the avoidance of questionable research practices.

Production and bioprocessing of Taxol from Aspergillus niger, an endophyte of Encephalartos whitelockii, with a plausible biosynthetic stability: antiproliferative activity and cell cycle analysis

The biosynthetic potency of Taxol by fungi raises their prospective to be a platform for commercial production of Taxol, nevertheless, the attenuation of its productivity with the fungal storage, is the challenge. Thus, screening for a novel fungal isolate inhabiting ethnopharmacological plants, with a plausible metabolic stability for Taxol production could be one of the most affordable approaches. Aspergillus niger OR414905.1, an endophyte of Encephalartos whitelockii, had the highest Taxol productivity (173.9 μg/L). The chemical identity of the purified Taxol was confirmed by HPLC, FTIR, and LC-MS/MS analyses, exhibiting the same molecular mass (854.5 m/z) and molecular fragmentation pattern of the authentic Taxol. The purified Taxol exhibited a potent antiproliferative activity against HepG-2, MCF-7 and Caco-2, with IC50 values 0.011, 0.016, and 0.067 μM, respectively, in addition to a significant activity against A. flavus, as a model of human fungal pathogen. The purified Taxol displayed a significant effect against the cellular migration of HepG-2 and MCF-7 cells, by ~ 52-59% after 72 h, compared to the control, confirming its interference with the cellular matrix formation. Furthermore, the purified Taxol exhibited a significant ability to prompt apoptosis in MCF-7 cells, by about 11-fold compared to control cells, suppressing their division at G2/M phase. Taxol productivity by A. niger has been optimized by the response surface methodology with Plackett-Burman Design and Central Composite Design, resulting in a remarkable ~ 1.6-fold increase (279.8 μg/L), over the control. The biological half-life time of Taxol productivity by A. niger was ~ 6 months of preservation at 4 ℃, however, the Taxol yield by A. niger was partially restored in response to ethyl acetate extracts of E. whitelockii, ensuring the presence of plant-derived signals that triggers the cryptic Taxol encoding genes.

Paclitaxel and its semi-synthetic derivatives: comprehensive insights into chemical structure, mechanisms of action, and anticancer properties

Cancer is a disease that can cause abnormal cell growth and can spread throughout the body. It is among the most significant causes of death worldwide, resulting in approx. 10 million deaths annually. Many synthetic anticancer drugs are available, but they often come with side effects and can interact negatively with other medications. Additionally, many chemotherapy drugs used for cancer treatment can develop resistance and harm normal cells, leading to dose-limiting side effects. As a result, finding effective cancer treatments and developing new drugs remains a significant challenge. However, plants are a potent source of natural products with the potential for cancer treatment. These biologically active compounds may be the basis for enhanced or less toxic derivatives. Herbal medicines/phytomedicines, or plant-based drugs, are becoming more popular in treating complicated diseases like cancer due to their effectiveness and are a particularly attractive option due to their affordability, availability, and lack of serious side effects. They have broad applicability and therapeutic efficacy, which has spurred scientific research into their potential as anticancer agents. This review focuses on Paclitaxel (PTX), a plant-based drug derived from Taxus sp., and its ability to treat specific tumors. PTX and its derivatives are effective against various cancer cell lines. Researchers can use this detailed information to develop effective and affordable treatments for cancer.

Why Are There So Few Basidiomycota and Basal Fungi as Endophytes? A Review

A review of selected studies on fungal endophytes confirms the paucity of Basidiomycota and basal fungi, with almost 90% attributed to Ascomycota. Reasons for the low number of Basidiomycota and basal fungi, including the Chytridiomycota, Mucoromycota, and Mortierellomycota, are advanced, including isolation procedure and media, incubation period and the slow growth of basidiomycetes, the identification of non-sporulating isolates, endophyte competition, and fungus-host interactions. We compare the detection of endophytes through culture-dependent methods and culture-independent methods, the role of fungi on senescence of the host plant, and next-generation studies.

Antitumor and antibacterial activity of metabolites of endophytic Colletotrichum siamense isolated from coffee (Coffea arabica L. cv IAPAR-59)

Endophytic fungi produce a range of known metabolites and several others, not yet explored, which present important biological activities from the pharmaceutical and industrial perspective. Several studies have reported the diversity of endophytes in Coffea arabica plants, although few have been described in organic cultures. In the current paper, we describe the chemical profile of specialized metabolites in the ethyl acetate phase in a strain of the endophytic fungus Colletotrichum siamense associated with coffee (Coffea arabica L.) (Rubiaceae) and its potential against tumor cells and bacteria of medical and food importance. Cytotoxicity assays in tumor cells MCF-7 and HepG2/C3A were performed by MTT and microdilution in broth to evaluate the antibacterial action of metabolic extract. The antiproliferative assay showed promising results after 24 h of treatment, with 50% injunction concentrations for the two cell types. UHPLC-MS/MS analyses with an electrospray ionization source were used to analyze the extracts and identify compounds of species Colletotrichum siamense, which is still little explored as a source of active metabolites. Many of these compounds observed in the endophytic need to be chemically synthesized in industry, at high costs, while production by the fungus becomes a chemically and economically more viable alternative. Pyrocatechol, gentisyl alcohol, and alpha-linolenic acid, associated with different mechanisms of action against tumor cells, were detected among the main compounds. The extract of the endophytic fungus Colletotrichum siamense presented several compounds with pharmacological potential and antibacterial activity, corroborating its potential in biotechnological applications.

Way to efficient microbial paclitaxel mass production

The microbial synthesis of paclitaxel is attractive for its short-cycle, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. However, low paclitaxel productivity, depleted capacity during subculture and storage, and unclear biosynthesis mechanisms restrain industrial microbial synthesis. Along with the isolation of various paclitaxel-producing microorganisms and the development of versatile molecular tools, tremendous promises for microbial paclitaxel synthesis have become increasingly prominent. In this review, we summarize the progress of microbial synthesis of paclitaxel in recent years, focusing on paclitaxel-producing endophytes and representative engineering microorganism hosts that were used as chassis for paclitaxel precursor synthesis. Numerous wide-type microbes can manufacture paclitaxel, and fermentation process optimization and strain improvement can greatly enhance the productivity. Engineered microbes can efficiently synthesize precursors of paclitaxel by introducing exogenous synthetic pathway. Mining paclitaxel synthetic pathways and genetic manipulation of endophytes will accelerate the construction of microbial cell factories, indefinitely contributing to paclitaxel mass production by microbes. This review emphasizes the potential and provides solutions for efficient microbial paclitaxel mass production.

Bioactive Compounds from Endophytic Bacteria Bacillus subtilis Strain EP1 with Their Antibacterial Activities

Endophytic bacteria boost host plant defense and growth by producing vital compounds. In the current study, a bacterial strain was isolated from the Boswellia sacra plant and identified as Bacillus subtilis strain EP1 (accession number: MT256301) through 16S RNA gene sequencing. From the identified bacteria, four compounds-1 (4-(4-cinnamoyloxy)phenyl)butanoic acid), 2 (cyclo-(L-Pro-D-Tyr)), 3 (cyclo-(L-Val-L-Phe)), and 4 (cyclo-(L-Pro-L-Val))-were isolated and characterized by 1D and 2D NMR and mass spectroscopy. Moreover, antibacterial activity and beta-lactam-producing gene inhibition (δ-(l-α-aminoadipyl)-l-cysteinyl-d-valine synthetase (ACVS) and aminoadipate aminotransferase (AADAT)) assays were performed. Significant antibacterial activity was observed against the human pathogenic bacterial strains (E. coli) by compound 4 with a 13 ± 0.7 mm zone of inhibition (ZOI), followed by compound 1 having an 11 ± 0.7 mm ZOI. In contrast, the least antibacterial activity among the tested samples was offered by compound 2 with a 10 ± 0.9 mm ZOI compared to the standard (26 ± 1.2 mm). Similarly, the molecular analysis of beta-lactam inhibition determined that compounds 3 and 4 inhibited the two genes (2- to 4-fold) in the beta-lactam biosynthesis (ACVS and AADAT) pathway. From these results, it can be concluded that future research on these compounds could lead to the inhibition of antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacterial strains.

Taxol and β-tubulins from endophytic fungi isolated from the Himalayan Yew, Taxus wallichiana Zucc

Paclitaxel, better known as the anticancer drug Taxol®, has been isolated from several plant species and has been shown to be produced by fungi, actinomycetes, and even bacteria isolated from marine macroalgae. Given its cytostatic effect, studies conducted in the 1990's showed that paclitaxel was toxic to many pathogenic fungi and oomycetes. Further studies led to the idea that the differences in paclitaxel sensitivity exhibited by different fungi were due to differences in the β-tubulin protein sequence. With the recent isolation of endophytic fungi from the leaves and bark of the Himalayan Yew, Taxus wallichiana Zucc., and the availability of genomes from paclitaxel-producing fungi, we decided to further explore the idea that endophytic fungi isolated from Yews should be well-adapted to their environment by encoding β-tubulin proteins that are insensitive to paclitaxel. Our results found evidence of episodic positive/diversifying selection at 10 sites (default p-value threshold of 0.1) in the β-tubulin sequences, corresponding to codon positions 33, 55, 172, 218, 279, 335, 359, 362, 379, and 406. Four of these positions (i.e., 172, 279, 359, and 362) have been implicated in the binding of paclitaxel by β-tubulin or formed part of the binding pocket. As expected, all the fungal endophytes grew in different media regardless of the paclitaxel concentration tested. Furthermore, our results also showed that Taxomyces andreanae CBS 279.92, the first fungus shown to produce paclitaxel, is a Basidiomycete fungus as the two beta tubulins encoded by the fungus clustered together with other Basidiomycete fungi.

First Report of Grammothele lineata Causing Stem Rot of Areca catechu in Hainan Province, China

Areca catechu L. (areca) belongs to the Arecaceae family, which is composed of 181 genera and 2,600 species (Christenhusz and Byng 2016), is cultivated extensively in Southern and Southeastern Asia (Peng et al. 2015). Areca has a long history for its important economic and medicinal benefits and is one of the most important commercial crops in Hainan province, China. In recent years, root rot and stem rot diseases have occurred, causing areca plants to wither and even die. The serious symptoms mainly appeared in the Hainan province (Li et al. 2006). In March 2018, the rotten tissues of the diseased plants were observed to become brittle, brown, and even black from the stem base to the root; the outer leaves turned yellow, dry, and dropping in areca plantations of Qionghai county. The disease can spread from individual plants to the whole plantation in one to two years, with the characteristics of large-scale occurrence and rapid transmission, causing huge economic losses. Diseased tissues (5 × 5 mm) were disinfected with 75% ethanol for 30 s, 1% HgCl2 for 1 min, washed in sterile water, placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and incubated at 28°C (Gao et al. 2019). Pure isolates were obtained by transferring the mycelium around the diseased tissues to PDA several times. The colonies were white and cottony after culturing for 7 days. The reverse side of the colony was yellowish white. Basidiospores were hyaline, thin-walled, smooth, 1.7-1.8 x 1.6-1.7 μm (n=30) in size and circular or ellipse in shape, in addition to a dimitic hyphal system (Das et al. 2017). For molecular identification, the genomic DNA of the isolate was extracted using the thermolysis method (Zhang et al. 2010). The ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region was amplified using the primer pairs ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990), and the amplified DNA fragments were sequenced. The obtained ITS sequence (GenBank accession No. MW534416) had 99.36% identity with the reference sequence (GenBank accession No. KX013157) of Grammothele lineata Berk. & M.A. Curtis. A phylogenetic tree was constructed with software MEGA7 using the neighbor-joining method, showing that the isolate was grouped in the same clade as G. lineata. To fulfil Koch's postulates, a pathogenicity test was performed using the stems of 6-month-old healthy areca seedlings. Stem surfaces were sterilized with 70% ethanol for 30 s, rinsed three times with sterile water, and gently stabbed with a sterile needle, and then inoculated with a 1-cm-diameter colonized PDA disk from a 7-day culture on wounds, moistened with wet cotton, and wrapped with a fresh plastic wrap. Plants inoculated with sterile PDA medium plugs were used as a control. The inoculation assay was carried out twice, with five plants in both control and treatment in each test. After 20 days, the stems of the plants inoculated with the pathogen exhibited rotten symptoms, and the leaves began to become yellow and shrunken, while the control plants had only the surface of the stems discolored slightly and the inner tissue was undamaged. The fungus was re-isolated from the infected stems. Based on the morphological observations and ITS sequence analysis, the isolate was identified as G. lineata. As far as we know, this is the first report of G. lineata causing the stem rot of areca in China.

Biologically Significant and Recently Isolated Alkaloids from Endophytic Fungi

A selection of the established and recently characterized alkaloids from the exploration of plant- and some marine-associated endophytic fungi is reviewed, with reference to alkaloids of biological significance.

A Compressive Review about Taxol®: History and Future Challenges

Taxol^®, which is also known as paclitaxel, is a chemotherapeutic agent widely used to treat different cancers. Since the discovery of its antitumoral activity, Taxol^® has been used to treat over one million patients, making it one of the most widely employed antitumoral drugs. Taxol^® was the first microtubule targeting agent described in the literature, with its main mechanism of action consisting of the disruption of microtubule dynamics, thus inducing mitotic arrest and cell death. However, secondary mechanisms for achieving apoptosis have also been demonstrated. Despite its wide use, Taxol^® has certain disadvantages. The main challenges facing Taxol^® are the need to find an environmentally sustainable production method based on the use of microorganisms, increase its bioavailability without exerting adverse effects on the health of patients and minimize the resistance presented by a high percentage of cells treated with paclitaxel. This review details, in a succinct manner, the main aspects of this important drug, from its discovery to the present day. We highlight the main challenges that must be faced in the coming years, in order to increase the effectiveness of Taxol^® as an anticancer agent.

Untapped Potentials of Endophytic Fungi: A Review of Novel Bioactive Compounds with Biological Applications

Over the last century, endophytic fungi have gained tremendous attention due to their ability to produce novel bioactive compounds exhibiting varied biological properties and are, therefore, utilized for medicinal, pharmaceutical, and agricultural applications. Endophytic fungi reside within the plant tissues without showing any disease symptoms, thus supporting the physiological and ecological attributes of the host plant. Ground breaking lead compounds, such as paclitaxel and penicillin, produced by endophytic fungi have paved the way for exploring novel bioactive compounds for commercial usage. Despite this, limited research has been conducted in this valuable and unique niche area. These bioactive compounds belong to various structural groups, including alkaloids, peptides, steroids, terpenoids, phenols, quinones, phenols, and flavonoids. The current review focuses on the significance of endophytic fungi in producing novel bioactive compounds possessing a variety of biological properties that include antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antiparasitic, antioxidant, immunosuppressant, and anticancer functions. Taking into consideration the portal of this publication, special emphasis is placed on the antimicrobial and antiviral activities of metabolites produced by endophytes against human pathogens. It also highlights the importance of utilization of these compounds as potential treatment agents for serious life-threatening infectious diseases. This is supported by the fact that several findings have indicated that these bioactive compounds may significantly contribute towards the fight against resistant human and plant pathogens, thus motivating the need enhance the search for new, more efficacious and cost-effective antimicrobial drugs.

Moustafa A, El-Gazzar N. Detection, Purification and Elucidation of Chemical Structure and Antiproliferative Activity of Taxol Produced by Penicillium chrysogenum

Penicillium chrysogenum has been reported as a potent taxol producer based on quantitative analysis by TLC and HPLC. The biosynthetic potency of taxol has been validated from PCR detection of rate-limiting genes of taxol synthesis such as taxadienesynthase and 10-de-acetylbaccatin III-O-acetyltransferase (DBAT), which catalyzes the immediate diterpenoid precursor of the taxol substance, as detected by PCR. Taxol production by P. chrysogenum was assessed by growing the fungus on different media. Potato dextrose broth (PDB) was shown to be the best medium for obtaining the higher amount of taxol (170 µg/L). A stepwise optimization of culture conditions necessary for production of higher amounts of taxol was investigated. The substance taxol was produced optimally after 18 d of incubation at 30 °C in PDB adjusted initially at pH 8.0 with shaking (120 rpm) (250 µg/L). The P. chrysogenum taxol was purified successfully by HPLC. Instrumental analyzes such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, 1HNMR and 13C NMR approved the structural formula of taxol (C47H51NO14), as constructed by ChemDraw. The P. chrysogenum taxol showed promising anticancer activity.

Genome and secretome analysis of jute endophyte Grammothele lineata strain SDL-CO-2015-1: Insights into its lignocellulolytic structure and secondary metabolite profile

Grammothele lineata strain SDL-CO-2015-1, jute (Corchorus olitorius) endophyte has been reported to produce anti-cancer drug paclitaxel in culture condition. Here we investigated the genome using different bioinformatic tools to find its association with the production of commercially important compounds including taxol. Carbohydrate-active enzymes, proteases, and secretory proteins were annotated revealing a complex endophytic relationship with its plant host. The presences of a diverse range of CAZymes including numerous lignocellulolytic enzymes support its potentiality in biomass degradation. Genome annotation led to the identification of 28 clusters for secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Several biosynthesis gene clusters were identified for terpene biosynthesis from antiSMASH analysis but none could be specifically pinned to taxol synthesis. This study will direct us to understand the genomic organization of endophytic basidiomycetes with a potential for producing numerous commercially important enzymes and secondary metabolites taking G. lineata as a model.

Phyllospheric Microbiomes: Diversity, Ecological Significance, and Biotechnological Applications

The phyllosphere referred to the total aerial plant surfaces (above-ground portions), as habitat for microorganisms. Microorganisms establish compositionally complex communities on the leaf surface. The microbiome of phyllosphere is rich in diversity of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, cyanobacteria, and viruses. The diversity, dispersal, and community development on the leaf surface are based on the physiochemistry, environment, and also the immunity of the host plant. A colonization process is an important event where both the microbe and the host plant have been benefited. Microbes commonly established either epiphytic or endophytic mode of life cycle on phyllosphere environment, which helps the host plant and functional communication with the surrounding environment. To the scientific advancement, several molecular techniques like metagenomics and metaproteomics have been used to study and understand the physiology and functional relationship of microbes to the host and its environment. Based on the available information, this chapter describes the basic understanding of microbiome in leaf structure and physiology, microbial interactions, especially bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes, and their adaptation in the phyllosphere environment. Further, the detailed information related to the importance of the microbiome in phyllosphere to the host plant and their environment has been analyzed. Besides, biopotentials of the phyllosphere microbiome have been reviewed.

Anti-HIV, antitumor and immunomodulatory activities of paclitaxel from fermentation broth using molecular imprinting technique

In this study, a single component paclitaxel was obtained from fermentation broth by molecular imprinting technique, and its antiviral, antitumor and immunomodulatory activities were studied. The results showed that paclitaxel had a good inhibitory activity on human breast cancer MCF-7 cells and showed a concentration- dependent relationship with an IC50 of about 15 μg/mL in the sulforhodamine B assay. At the same time, paclitaxel exerted a weak inhibitory activity on cervical cancer Hela cells. In addition, paclitaxel not only inhibited the invasion of HIV-1 pseudovirus into cells, but also exhibited inhibitory activity to a certain extent after viral invasion of the cells. At a paclitaxel concentration of 20 μg/mL, the inhibition of HIV-1 pseudovirus reached about 66%. The inhibition of HIV-1 protease activity was concentration-dependent. At a concentration of 20 μg/mL, the inhibitory effect of paclitaxel on HIV-1 protease was similar to that of the positive control pepstatin A, being 15.8%. The HIV-1 integrase inhibiting activity of paclitaxel was relatively weak. Paclitaxel significantly up-regulated the expression of interleukin-6.

Hyper-production of taxol from Aspergillus fumigatus, an endophytic fungus isolated from Taxus sp. of the Northern Himalayan region

Taxol® (generic name Paclitaxel) is a chemotherapeutic drug, effective against head, neck, breast, lung, bladder, ovary, and cervix cancers. Rising demands in chemotherapy and limited supply of natural taxol have ultimately increased the cost of the drug. Semi synthesis using taxol precursors is not able to meet the global supply and has intensified the need to find alternative ways of taxol production. In the present study, 34 different endophytes were isolated from Taxus sp. collected from Shimla, Himachal Pradesh (India). Primary screening of taxol-producing fungi was carried out based on the presence of dbat gene, essential for the taxol biosynthetic pathway. A fungal isolate TPF-06 was screened to be a taxol-producing strain based on the PCR amplification results. It was characterized and identified as Aspergillus fumigatus by 18S rRNA (Accession No. KU-837249). Multiple sequence alignment (MSA) of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and phylogenetic analysis confirmed that strain belonged to A. fumigatus clade (Accession No. MF-374798) and is endophytic in nature. Presence of taxol was detected and quantified by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and characterized by using Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), Ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, Mass spectrometry (MS), Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Microbial fermentation in the S7 medium yielded 1.60 g/L of taxol, which to the best of our knowledge is the highest taxol production from an endophytic fungus. Findings of the present study suggest that the A. fumigatus is an excellent alternate source for taxol supply, and it may become a highly potent strain on a commercial scale. The involvement of dbat gene in A. fumigatus KU-837249 strain further suggested a way of increasing taxol yield in fungi by medium engineering and recombinant DNA technology in the future.

A unique life-strategy of an endophytic yeast Rhodotorula mucilaginosa JGTA-S1-a comparative genomics viewpoint

Endophytic yeasts of genus Rhodotorula are gaining importance for their ability to improve plant growth. The nature of their interaction with plants, however, remains unknown. Rhodotorula mucilaginosa JGTA-S1 was isolated as an endophyte of Typha angustifolia and promoted growth in the host. To investigate the life-strategy of the yeast from a genomics perspective, we used Illumina and Oxford Nanopore reads to generate a high-quality annotated draft assembly of JGTA-S1 and compared its genome to three other Rhodotorula yeasts and the close relative Rhodosporidium toruloides. JGTA-S1 is a haploid yeast possessing several genes potentially facilitating its endophytic lifestyle such as those responsible for solubilizing phosphate and producing phytohormones. An intact mating-locus in JGTA-S1 raised the possibility of a yet unknown sexual reproductive cycle in Rhodotorula yeasts. Additionally, JGTA-S1 had functional anti-freezing genes and was also unique in lacking a functional nitrate-assimilation pathway—a feature that is associated with obligate biotrophs. Nitrogen-fixing endobacteria were found within JGTA-S1 that may circumvent this defective N-metabolism. JGTA-S1 genome data coupled with experimental evidence give us an insight into the nature of its beneficial interaction with plants.

Cardenolides: Insights from chemical structure and pharmacological utility

Cardiac glycosides (CGs) are a class of naturally occurring steroid-like compounds, and members of this class have been in clinical use for more than 1500 years. They have been used in folk medicine as arrow poisons, abortifacients, heart tonics, emetics, and diuretics as well as in other applications. The major use of CGs today is based on their ability to inhibit the membrane-bound Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase enzyme, and they are regarded as an effective treatment for congestive heart failure (CHF), cardiac arrhythmia and atrial fibrillation. Furthermore, increasing evidence has indicated the potential cytotoxic effects of CGs against various types of cancer. In this review, we highlight some of the structural features of this class of natural products that are crucial for their efficacy, some methods of isolating these compounds from natural resources, and the structural elucidation tools that have been used. We also describe their physicochemical properties and several modern biotechnological approaches for preparing CGs that do not require plant sources.

Draft Genome Sequence of Grammothele lineata SDL-CO-2015-1, a Jute Endophyte with a Potential for Paclitaxel Biosynthesis

Grammothele lineata strain SDL-CO-2015-1, a basidiomycete fungus, was identified as an endophyte from a jute species, Corchorus olitorius var. 2015, and found to produce paclitaxel, a diterpenic polyoxygenated pseudoalkaloid with antitumor activity. Here, we report the draft genome sequence (42.8 Mb with 9,395 genes) of this strain.