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Zheng X, Zhao L, Wu F, Zhou H, Shi F. Screening and Identification of Protease-Producing Microorganisms in the Gut of Gryllotalpa orientalis (Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae). INSECTS 2024; 15:629. [PMID: 39194833 DOI: 10.3390/insects15080629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2024] [Revised: 08/15/2024] [Accepted: 08/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
The insect gut harbors a diverse array of functional microorganisms that warrant further exploration and utilization. However, there is currently a paucity of research reports on the discovery of protease-producing microorganisms with industrial application value in the gut. Here, we employed microbial culturing to screen and identify the protease-producing microorganisms in the gut extract of Gryllotalpa orientalis. Based on morphological, physiological, and biochemical characterization, 16S rRNA sequencing, as well as ANI and dDDH values of whole genome, the protease-producing strains isolated from the insect gut were identified as Priestia aryahattai DBM-1 and DX-4, P. megaterium DX-3, and Serratia surfactantfaciens DBM-5. According to whole-genome analysis, strain DBM-5, which exhibited the highest enzyme activity, possesses abundant membrane transport genes and carbohydrate metabolism enzymes. In contrast, strains DX-3 and DX-4 not only have the ability to hydrolyze proteins but also demonstrate the capability to hydrolyze plant materials. Furthermore, strains that are closely related tend to have similar metabolic product gene clusters in their genomes. The screening and identification of protease resources are essential for the subsequent development and utilization of gut functional microorganisms and genetic resources in insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Zheng
- Laboratory of Enzyme Preparation, Hebei Research Institute of Microbiology Co., Ltd., Baoding 071051, China
- Institute of Life Science and Green Development, College of Life Science, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
| | - Lu Zhao
- Laboratory of Enzyme Preparation, Hebei Research Institute of Microbiology Co., Ltd., Baoding 071051, China
| | - Fangtong Wu
- Laboratory of Enzyme Preparation, Hebei Research Institute of Microbiology Co., Ltd., Baoding 071051, China
| | - He Zhou
- Laboratory of Enzyme Preparation, Hebei Research Institute of Microbiology Co., Ltd., Baoding 071051, China
| | - Fuming Shi
- Institute of Life Science and Green Development, College of Life Science, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
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Olmstead ARB, Mathieson OL, McLellan WA, Pabst DA, Keenan TF, Goldstein T, Erwin PM. Gut bacterial communities in Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) throughout a disease-driven (Morbillivirus) unusual mortality event. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2023; 99:fiad097. [PMID: 37591660 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiad097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Gut microbiomes are important determinants of animal health. In sentinel marine mammals where animal and ocean health are connected, microbiome impacts can scale to ecosystem-level importance. Mass mortality events affect cetacean populations worldwide, yet little is known about the contributory role of their gut bacterial communities to disease susceptibility and progression. Here, we characterized bacterial communities from fecal samples of common bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, across an unusual mortality event (UME) caused by dolphin Morbillivirus (DMV). 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed similar diversity and structure of bacterial communities in individuals stranding before, during, and after the 2013-2015 Mid-Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin UME and these trends held in a subset of dolphins tested by PCR for DMV infection. Fine-scale shifts related to the UME were not common (10 of 968 bacterial taxa) though potential biomarkers for health monitoring were identified within the complex bacterial communities. Accordingly, acute DMV infection was not associated with a distinct gut bacterial community signature in T. truncatus. However, temporal stratification of DMV-positive dolphins did reveal changes in bacterial community composition between early and late outbreak periods, suggesting that gut community disruptions may be amplified by the indirect effects of accumulating health burdens associated with chronic morbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa R B Olmstead
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, United States
| | - Olivia L Mathieson
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, United States
| | - William A McLellan
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, United States
| | - D Ann Pabst
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, United States
| | - Tiffany F Keenan
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, United States
| | - Tracey Goldstein
- Zoological Pathology Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 3300 Golf Road, Brookfield, IL 60513, United States
| | - Patrick M Erwin
- Department of Biology and Marine Biology, Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, United States
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Adekolurejo OO, McDermott K, Greathead HMR, Miller HM, Mackie AR, Boesch C. Effect of Red-Beetroot-Supplemented Diet on Gut Microbiota Composition and Metabolite Profile of Weaned Pigs-A Pilot Study. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2196. [PMID: 37443994 PMCID: PMC10339942 DOI: 10.3390/ani13132196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Red beetroot is a well-recognized and established source of bioactive compounds (e.g., betalains and polyphenols) with anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. It is proposed as a potential alternative to zinc oxide with a focus on gut microbiota modulation and metabolite production. In this study, weaned pigs aged 28 days were fed either a control diet, a diet supplemented with zinc oxide (3000 mg/kg), or 2% and 4% pulverized whole red beetroot (CON, ZNO, RB2, and RB4; respectively) for 14 days. After pigs were euthanized, blood and digesta samples were collected for microbial composition and metabolite analyses. The results showed that the diet supplemented with red beetroot at 2% improved the gut microbial richness relative to other diets but marginally influenced the cecal microbial diversity compared to a zinc-oxide-supplemented diet. A further increase in red beetroot levels (4%-RB4) led to loss in cecal diversity and decreased short chain fatty acids and secondary bile acid concentrations. Also, an increased Proteobacteria abundance, presumably due to increased lactate/lactic-acid-producing bacteria was observed. In summary, red beetroot contains several components conceived to improve the gut microbiota and metabolite output of weaned pigs. Future studies investigating individual components of red beetroot will better elucidate their contributions to gut microbiota modulation and pig health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Opeyemi O. Adekolurejo
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (O.O.A.); (A.R.M.)
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (K.M.); (H.M.R.G.); (H.M.M.)
| | - Katie McDermott
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (K.M.); (H.M.R.G.); (H.M.M.)
| | - Henry M. R. Greathead
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (K.M.); (H.M.R.G.); (H.M.M.)
| | - Helen M. Miller
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (K.M.); (H.M.R.G.); (H.M.M.)
| | - Alan R. Mackie
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (O.O.A.); (A.R.M.)
| | - Christine Boesch
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (O.O.A.); (A.R.M.)
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Mahdy MS, Azmy AF, Dishisha T, Mohamed WR, Ahmed KA, Hassan A, Aidy SE, El-Gendy AO. Irinotecan-gut microbiota interactions and the capability of probiotics to mitigate Irinotecan-associated toxicity. BMC Microbiol 2023; 23:53. [PMID: 36864380 PMCID: PMC9979425 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-023-02791-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Irinotecan is a chemotherapeutic agent used to treat a variety of tumors, including colorectal cancer (CRC). In the intestine, it is transformed into SN-38 by gut microbial enzymes, which is responsible for its toxicity during excretion. OBJECTIVE Our study highlights the impact of Irinotecan on gut microbiota composition and the role of probiotics in limiting Irinotecan-associated diarrhea and suppressing gut bacterial β-glucuronidase enzymes. MATERIAL AND METHODS To investigate the effect of Irinotecan on the gut microbiota composition, we applied 16S rRNA gene sequencing in three groups of stool samples from healthy individuals, colon cancer, and Irinotecan treated patients (n = 5/group). Furthermore, three Lactobacillus spp.; Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (L. plantarum), Lactobacillus acidophilus (L. acidophilus), Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus (L. rhamnosus) were used in a single and mixed form to in-vitro explore the effect of probiotics on the expression of β-glucuronidase gene from E. coli. Also, probiotics were introduced in single and mixed forms in groups of mice before the administration of Irinotecan, and their protective effects were explored by assessing the level of reactive oxidative species (ROS) as well as studying the concomitant intestinal inflammation and apoptosis. RESULTS The gut microbiota was disturbed in individuals with colon cancer and after Irinotecan treatment. In the healthy group, Firmicutes were more abundant than Bacteriodetes, which was the opposite in the case of colon-cancer or Irinotecan treated groups. Actinobacteria and Verrucomicrobia were markedly present within the healthy group, while Cyanobacteria were noted in colon-cancer and the Irinotecan-treated groups. Enterobacteriaceae and genus Dialister were more abundant in the colon-cancer group than in other groups. The abundance of Veillonella, Clostridium, Butryicicoccus, and Prevotella were increased in Irinotecan-treated groups compared to other groups. Using Lactobacillus spp. mixture in mice models significantly relieved Irinotecan-induced diarrhea through the reduction of both β-glucuronidase expression and ROS, in addition to guarding gut epithelium against microbial dysbiosis and proliferative crypt injury. CONCLUSIONS Irinotecan-based chemotherapy altered intestinal microbiota. The gut microbiota participates greatly in determining both the efficacy and toxicity of chemotherapies, of which the toxicity of Irinotecan is caused by the bacterial ß-glucuronidase enzymes. The gut microbiota can now be aimed and modulated to promote efficacy and decrease the toxicity of chemotherapeutics. The used probiotic regimen in this study lowered mucositis, oxidative stress, cellular inflammation, and apoptotic cascade induction of Irinotecan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa S Mahdy
- Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Salah Salem Street, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt
| | - Ahmed F Azmy
- Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Salah Salem Street, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt
| | - Tarek Dishisha
- Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Salah Salem Street, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt
| | - Wafaa R Mohamed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Kawkab A Ahmed
- Pathology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, 12211, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Hassan
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Sahar El Aidy
- Host-Microbe Interactions, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ahmed O El-Gendy
- Microbiology and Immunology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Salah Salem Street, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt.
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5
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Wright RJ, Comeau AM, Langille MGI. From defaults to databases: parameter and database choice dramatically impact the performance of metagenomic taxonomic classification tools. Microb Genom 2023; 9:mgen000949. [PMID: 36867161 PMCID: PMC10132073 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In metagenomic analyses of microbiomes, one of the first steps is usually the taxonomic classification of reads by comparison to a database of previously taxonomically classified genomes. While different studies comparing metagenomic taxonomic classification methods have determined that different tools are 'best', there are two tools that have been used the most to-date: Kraken (k-mer-based classification against a user-constructed database) and MetaPhlAn (classification by alignment to clade-specific marker genes), the latest versions of which are Kraken2 and MetaPhlAn 3, respectively. We found large discrepancies in both the proportion of reads that were classified as well as the number of species that were identified when we used both Kraken2 and MetaPhlAn 3 to classify reads within metagenomes from human-associated or environmental datasets. We then investigated which of these tools would give classifications closest to the real composition of metagenomic samples using a range of simulated and mock samples and examined the combined impact of tool-parameter-database choice on the taxonomic classifications given. This revealed that there may not be a one-size-fits-all 'best' choice. While Kraken2 can achieve better overall performance, with higher precision, recall and F1 scores, as well as alpha- and beta-diversity measures closer to the known composition than MetaPhlAn 3, the computational resources required for this may be prohibitive for many researchers, and the default database and parameters should not be used. We therefore conclude that the best tool-parameter-database choice for a particular application depends on the scientific question of interest, which performance metric is most important for this question and the limit of available computational resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn J. Wright
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Andrè M. Comeau
- Integrated Microbiome Resource (IMR), Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Morgan G. I. Langille
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
- Integrated Microbiome Resource (IMR), Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
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Adams NE, Becker MA, Edmands S. Effect of Geography and Captivity on Scat Bacterial Communities in the Imperiled Channel Island Fox. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:748323. [PMID: 34925262 PMCID: PMC8672056 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.748323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
With developing understanding that host-associated microbiota play significant roles in individual health and fitness, taking an interdisciplinary approach combining microbiome research with conservation science is increasingly favored. Here we establish the scat microbiome of the imperiled Channel Island fox (Urocyon littoralis) and examine the effects of geography and captivity on the variation in bacterial communities. Using high throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing, we discovered distinct bacterial communities in each island fox subspecies. Weight, timing of the sample collection, and sex contributed to the geographic patterns. We uncovered significant taxonomic differences and an overall decrease in bacterial diversity in captive versus wild foxes. Understanding the drivers of microbial variation in this system provides a valuable lens through which to evaluate the health and conservation of these genetically depauperate foxes. The island-specific bacterial community baselines established in this study can make monitoring island fox health easier and understanding the implications of inter-island translocation clearer. The decrease in bacterial diversity within captive foxes could lead to losses in the functional services normally provided by commensal microbes and suggests that zoos and captive breeding programs would benefit from maintaining microbial diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E Adams
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Madeleine A Becker
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Suzanne Edmands
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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7
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Bowerman KL, Knowles SCL, Bradley JE, Baltrūnaitė L, Lynch MDJ, Jones KM, Hugenholtz P. Effects of laboratory domestication on the rodent gut microbiome. ISME COMMUNICATIONS 2021; 1:49. [PMID: 36747007 PMCID: PMC9723573 DOI: 10.1038/s43705-021-00053-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
The domestication of the laboratory mouse has influenced the composition of its native gut microbiome, which is now known to differ from that of its wild ancestor. However, limited exploration of the rodent gut microbiome beyond the model species Mus musculus has made it difficult to interpret microbiome variation in a broader phylogenetic context. Here, we analyse 120 de novo and 469 public metagenomically-sequenced faecal and caecal samples from 16 rodent hosts representing wild, laboratory and captive lifestyles. Distinct gut bacterial communities were observed between rodent host genera, with broadly distributed species originating from the as-yet-uncultured bacterial genera UBA9475 and UBA2821 in the families Oscillospiraceae and Lachnospiraceae, respectively. In laboratory mice, Helicobacteraceae were generally depleted relative to wild mice and specific Muribaculaceae populations were enriched in different laboratory facilities, suggesting facility-specific outgrowths of this historically dominant rodent gut family. Several bacterial families of clinical interest, including Akkermansiaceae, Streptococcaceae and Enterobacteriaceae, were inferred to have gained over half of their representative species in mice within the laboratory environment, being undetected in most wild rodents and suggesting an association between laboratory domestication and pathobiont emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate L Bowerman
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, Australian Centre for Ecogenomics, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | - Kathryn M Jones
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Philip Hugenholtz
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, Australian Centre for Ecogenomics, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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8
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Flores-León M, Alcaraz N, Pérez-Domínguez M, Torres-Arciga K, Rebollar-Vega R, De la Rosa-Velázquez IA, Arriaga-Canon C, Herrera LA, Arias C, González-Barrios R. Transcriptional Profiles Reveal Deregulation of Lipid Metabolism and Inflammatory Pathways in Neurons Exposed to Palmitic Acid. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:4639-4651. [PMID: 34155583 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02434-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The effects of the consumption of high-fat diets (HFD) have been studied to unravel the molecular pathways they are altering in order to understand the link between increased caloric intake, metabolic diseases, and the risk of cognitive dysfunction. The saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid (PA), is the main component of HFD and it has been found increased in the circulation of obese and diabetic people. In the central nervous system, PA has been associated with inflammatory responses in astrocytes, but the effects on neurons exposed to it have not been largely investigated. Given that PA affects a variety of metabolic pathways, we aimed to analyze the transcriptomic profile activated by this fatty acid to shed light on the mechanisms of neuronal dysfunction. In the current study, we profiled the transcriptome response after PA exposition at non-toxic doses in primary hippocampal neurons. Gene ontology and Reactome pathway analysis revealed a pattern of gene expression which is associated with inflammatory pathways, and importantly, with the activation of lipid metabolism that is considered not very active in neurons. Validation by quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) of Hmgcs2, Angptl4, Ugt8, and Rnf145 support the results obtained by RNAseq. Overall, these findings suggest that neurons are able to respond to saturated fatty acids changing the expression pattern of genes associated with inflammatory response and lipid utilization that may be involved in the neuronal damage associated with metabolic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Flores-León
- Departamento de Medicina Genómica y Toxicología Ambiental, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - N Alcaraz
- The Bioinformatics Centre. Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaloes Vej 5, DK-2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica, Periférico Sur 4809, Arenal Tepepan, Tlalpan, CP 14610, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - M Pérez-Domínguez
- Departamento de Medicina Genómica y Toxicología Ambiental, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - K Torres-Arciga
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM, Avenida San Fernando No. 22, Colonia Sección XVI, Tlalpan, CP 14080, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - R Rebollar-Vega
- Genomics Laboratory, Red de Apoyo a La Investigación - CIC, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, INMCNSZ, Vasco de Quiroga 15, Belisario Domínguez Secc. 16, Tlalpan, 14080, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - I A De la Rosa-Velázquez
- Genomics Laboratory, Red de Apoyo a La Investigación - CIC, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, INMCNSZ, Vasco de Quiroga 15, Belisario Domínguez Secc. 16, Tlalpan, 14080, Mexico City, Mexico
- Next Generation Sequencing Core Facility, Helmholtz Zentrum Muenchen, Ingolstaedter Landstr 1, 85754, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - C Arriaga-Canon
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM, Avenida San Fernando No. 22, Colonia Sección XVI, Tlalpan, CP 14080, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - L A Herrera
- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica, Periférico Sur 4809, Arenal Tepepan, Tlalpan, CP 14610, Mexico City, Mexico
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM, Avenida San Fernando No. 22, Colonia Sección XVI, Tlalpan, CP 14080, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Clorinda Arias
- Departamento de Medicina Genómica y Toxicología Ambiental, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México.
| | - Rodrigo González-Barrios
- Unidad de Investigación Biomédica en Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Cancerología-Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, UNAM, Avenida San Fernando No. 22, Colonia Sección XVI, Tlalpan, CP 14080, Mexico City, Mexico.
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Barszcz M, Taciak M, Tuśnio A, Święch E, Skomiał J, Čobanová K, Grešáková Ľ. The effect of organic and inorganic zinc source, used with lignocellulose or potato fiber, on microbiota composition, fermentation, and activity of enzymes involved in dietary fiber breakdown in the large intestine of pigs. Livest Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livsci.2021.104429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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10
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Kelana Hanindyani A, Cantya Prakasita V, Kristian Adi Y, Budi Pitojo T, Endang Tri Hastuti Wahyuni A. Isolation, identification, and antimicrobial sensitivity test of bacteria isolated from the rectal swab of african pygmy hedgehog ( Atelerix albiventris) and sunda porcupine ( Hystrix javanica). BIO WEB OF CONFERENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1051/bioconf/20213306010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Atelerix albiventris and Hystrix javanica were widely known as pets or livestock in Indonesia, but there has been no study about bacteria from the rectal swab before. This study aims to isolate, identify, and analyze the antibiotic sensitivity of the isolated bacteria from the rectal swab of Atelerix albiventris and Hystrix javanica. Rectal swab samples were cultured on blood agar plate and identified by selective media and biochemical tests. Kirby Bauer’s disk diffusion method was used for the antimicrobial sensitivity test. The result shows that the bacteria identified from the rectal swab samples of Atelerix albiventris are Escherichia coli (75%) and Proteus mirabilis (25%), meanwhile the bacteria identified from Hystrix javanica are Escherichia coli (100%). The identified Escherichia coli found from the sample is sensitive to Amikacin, Amoxycillin, Ampicillin, Enrofloxacin, Fosfomycin, Kanamycin, Chloramphenicol, Streptomycin, Tetracycline, and Trimethoprim; and resistant to Erythromycin and Penicillin G. The identified Proteus mirabilis is sensitive to Amikacin, Amoxicillin, Ampicillin, Kanamycin, and Trimethoprim; intermediate to Enrofloxacin; and resistant to Erythromycin, Fosfomycin, Chloramphenicol, Penicillin G, Streptomycin, and Tetracycline. This research concludes that the bacteria found from the rectal swab of Atelerix albiventris and Hystrix javanica are bacteria with similar species and characters.
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Contrasting gut microbiota in captive Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) by age. Arch Microbiol 2021; 203:5405-5416. [PMID: 34398307 PMCID: PMC8502154 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-021-02526-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the gut microbiota characteristics of endangered species such as the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), especially in their early stages of life, could be essential for improving their management and ex situ conservation strategies. Here, we analyzed the gut microbiota diversity, composition, and function of captive Eurasian otters at different ages using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. We found that: (1) Clostridiaceae was abundant in all age stages; (2) Lactococcus in cubs is thought to predominate for digesting milk; (3) bacteria associated with amino acid metabolism increase with age, while bacteria associated with carbohydrate metabolism decrease with age, which is likely due to decrease in dietary carbohydrate content (e.g., milk) and increase in dietary protein contents (e.g., fishes) with age; and (4) fish-related bacteria were detected in feces of healthy adults and juveniles. Overall, the gut microbiota of captive Eurasian otters was taxonomically and functionally different by age, which is thought to be attributed to the difference in the diet in their life stages. This study provided baseline information regarding the gut microbiota of Eurasian otters for the first time and contributes to improvement in their management in captivity.
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12
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Bragg M, Freeman EW, Lim HC, Songsasen N, Muletz-Wolz CR. Gut Microbiomes Differ Among Dietary Types and Stool Consistency in the Captive Red Wolf ( Canis rufus). Front Microbiol 2020; 11:590212. [PMID: 33304337 PMCID: PMC7693430 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.590212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Captive management of many wildlife species can be challenging, with individuals displaying health disorders that are not generally described in the wild population. Retrospective studies have identified gastrointestinal (GI) diseases, in particular inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), as the second leading cause of captive adult red wolf (Canis rufus) mortality. Recent molecular studies show that imbalanced gut microbial composition is tightly linked to IBD in the domestic dog. The goal of the present study was to address two main questions: (1) how do red wolf gut microbiomes differ between animals with loose stool consistency, indicative of GI issues, and those with normal stool consistency and (2) how does dietary type relate to stool consistency and red wolf gut microbiomes? Fresh fecal samples were collected from 48 captive wolves housed in eight facilities in the United States and from two wild wolves living in Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge, NC, United States. For each individual, the stool consistency was categorized as loose or normal using a standardized protocol and their diet was categorized as either wild, whole meat, a mix of whole meat and kibble or kibble. We characterized gut microbiome structure using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. We found that red wolves with a loose stool consistency differed in composition than wolves with normal stool consistency, suggesting a link between GI health and microbiome composition. Diet was not related to stool consistency but did significantly impact gut microbiome composition; gut microbiome composition of wolves fed a kibble diet were significantly different than the gut microbiome composition of wolves fed a mixed, whole meat and wild diet. Findings from this study increase the understanding of the interplay between diet and GI health in the red wolf, a critical piece of information needed to maintain a healthy red wolf population ex situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan Bragg
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA, United States
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Elizabeth W. Freeman
- School of Integrative Studies, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
| | - Haw Chuan Lim
- Department of Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States
| | - Nucharin Songsasen
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Front Royal, VA, United States
| | - Carly R. Muletz-Wolz
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, United States
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13
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Kyu MT, Nishio S, Noda K, Dar B, Aye SS, Matsuda T. Predominant secretion of cellobiohydrolases and endo-β-1,4-glucanases in nutrient-limited medium by Aspergillus spp. isolated from subtropical field. J Biochem 2020; 168:243-256. [DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvaa049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Biological degradation of cellulose from dead plants in nature and plant biomass from agricultural and food-industry waste is important for sustainable carbon recirculation. This study aimed at searching diverse cellulose-degrading systems of wild filamentous fungi and obtaining fungal lines useful for cellooligosaccharide production from agro-industrial wastes. Fungal lines with cellulolytic activity were screened and isolated from stacked rice straw and soil in subtropical fields. Among 13 isolated lines, in liquid culture with a nutrition-limited cellulose-containing medium, four lines of Aspergillus spp. secreted 50–60 kDa proteins as markedly dominant components and gave clear activity bands of possible endo-β-1,4-glucanase in zymography. Mass spectroscopy (MS) analysis of the dominant components identified three endo-β-1,4-glucanases (GH5, GH7 and GH12) and two cellobiohydrolases (GH6 and GH7). Cellulose degradation by the secreted proteins was analysed by LC-MS-based measurement of derivatized reducing sugars. The enzymes from the four Aspergillus spp. produced cellobiose from crystalline cellulose and cellotriose at a low level compared with cellobiose. Moreover, though smaller than that from crystalline cellulose, the enzymes of two representative lines degraded powdered rice straw and produced cellobiose. These fungal lines and enzymes would be effective for production of cellooligosaccharides as cellulose degradation-intermediates with added value other than glucose.
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Affiliation(s)
- May Thin Kyu
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
- Department of Botany, University of Yangon, University Avenue Road, Kamayut Township 11041, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Shunsuke Nishio
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Koki Noda
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Bay Dar
- Department of Botany, University of Yangon, University Avenue Road, Kamayut Township 11041, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - San San Aye
- Department of Botany, University of Yangon, University Avenue Road, Kamayut Township 11041, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Tsukasa Matsuda
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
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14
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Alessandri G, Milani C, Mancabelli L, Mangifesta M, Lugli GA, Viappiani A, Duranti S, Turroni F, Ossiprandi MC, van Sinderen D, Ventura M. The impact of human-facilitated selection on the gut microbiota of domesticated mammals. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2020; 95:5538759. [PMID: 31344227 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiz121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Domestication is the process by which anthropogenic forces shape lifestyle and behavior of wild species to accommodate human needs. The impact of domestication on animal physiology and behavior has been extensively studied, whereas its effect on the gut microbiota is still largely unexplored. For this reason, 16S rRNA gene-based and internal transcribed spacer-mediated bifidobacterial profiling, together with shotgun metagenomics, was employed to investigate the taxonomic composition and metabolic repertoire of 146 mammalian fecal samples, corresponding to 12 domesticated-feral dyads. Our results revealed that changes induced by domestication have extensively shaped the taxonomic composition of the mammalian gut microbiota. In this context, the selection of microbial taxa linked to a more efficient feed conversion into body mass and putative horizontal transmission of certain bacterial genera from humans were observed in the fecal microbiota of domesticated animals when compared to their feral relatives and to humans. In addition, profiling of the metabolic arsenal through metagenomics highlighted extensive functional adaptation of the fecal microbial community of domesticated mammals to changes induced by domestication. Remarkably, domesticated animals showed, when compared to their feral relatives, increased abundance of specific glycosyl hydrolases, possibly due to the higher intake of complex plant carbohydrates typical of commercial animal feeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Alessandri
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Via del Taglio 8, 43100 Parma, Italy
| | - Christian Milani
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Leonardo Mancabelli
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Marta Mangifesta
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Gabriele Andrea Lugli
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Alice Viappiani
- GenProbio srl, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Sabrina Duranti
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Francesca Turroni
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy.,Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Ossiprandi
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Parma, Via del Taglio 8, 43100 Parma, Italy.,Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Douwe van Sinderen
- APC Microbiome Institute and School of Microbiology, Bioscience Institute, National University of Ireland, Western Road, Cork, Ireland
| | - Marco Ventura
- Laboratory of Probiogenomics, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences, and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy.,Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11a, 43124 Parma, Italy
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15
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McDermid KJ, Kittle RP, Veillet A, Plouviez S, Muehlstein L, Balazs GH. Identification of Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Hawaiian Green Turtles ( Chelonia mydas). Evol Bioinform Online 2020; 16:1176934320914603. [PMID: 32313421 PMCID: PMC7160772 DOI: 10.1177/1176934320914603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) have a hindgut fermentation
digestive tract, which uses cellulolytic microbes to break down plant matter in
the cecum and proximal colon. Previous studies on bacterial communities of green
turtles have not identified in situ hindgut microbiota, and
never before in Hawaiian green turtles, which comprise an isolated
metapopulation. Fresh samples using sterile swabs were taken from five locations
along the gastrointestinal tracts of eight green turtles that had required
euthanization. Bacteria were cultured, aerobically and anaerobically, on
nutrient agar and four differential and selective media. Samples at three
sections along the gastrointestinal tracts of two green turtles were analyzed
using 16S metagenomics on an Ion Torrent Personal Genome Machine. More than half
of the 4 532 104 sequences belonged to the phylum Firmicutes, followed by
Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria, which are characteristic of herbivore gut
microbiota. Some microbiota variation existed between turtles and among
gastrointestinal sections. The 16S sequence analysis provided a better
representation of the total gastrointestinal bacterial community, much of which
cannot be cultured using traditional microbial techniques. These metagenomic
analyses serve as a foundation for a better understanding of the microbiome of
green turtles in the Hawaiian Islands and elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla J McDermid
- Department of Marine Science, University of Hawai'i at Hilo, Hilo, HI, USA
| | - Ronald P Kittle
- Tropical Conservation Biology and Environmental Science Graduate Program, University of Hawai'i at Hilo, Hilo, HI, USA.,Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA
| | - Anne Veillet
- Core Genetics Lab, University of Hawai'i at Hilo, Hilo, HI, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA
| | - Sophie Plouviez
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA
| | - Lisa Muehlstein
- Department of Marine Science, University of Hawai'i at Hilo, Hilo, HI, USA
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16
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Pereira AC, Bandeira V, Fonseca C, Cunha MV. Egyptian Mongoose ( Herpestes ichneumon) Gut Microbiota: Taxonomical and Functional Differences across Sex and Age Classes. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8030392. [PMID: 32168965 PMCID: PMC7143146 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8030392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) is a medium-size carnivore that, in Europe, is restricted to Iberia. The bio-ecology of this species remains to be elucidated in several dimensions, including gut microbiota that is nowadays recognized as a fundamental component of mammals. In this work, we investigated the gut microbiota of this herpestid by single-molecule real-time sequencing of twenty paired male (n = 10) and female (n = 10) intestinal samples. This culture-independent approach enabled microbial profiling based on 16S rDNA and investigation of taxonomical and functional features. The core gut microbiome of the adult subpopulation was dominated by Firmicutes, Fusobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. Eight genera were uniquely found in adults and five in non-adults. When comparing gut bacterial communities across sex, four genera were exclusive of females and six uniquely found in males. Despite these compositional distinctions, alpha- and beta-diversity analyses showed no statistically significant differences across sex or between adult and non-adult specimens. However, when function was inferred, males presented a significantly higher abundance of amino acid and citrate cycle metabolic pathways, compared to the significant overrepresentation in females of galactose metabolic pathways. Additionally, adults exhibited a significantly higher abundance of cationic antimicrobial peptide resistance pathways, while non-adults bared a significant overrepresentation of two-component systems associated with antibiotic synthesis, flagellin and biofilm production, and chemotaxis control. This study adds new insights into the mongoose bio-ecology palette, highlighting taxonomical and functional microbiome dissimilarities across sex and age classes, possibly related to primary production resources and life-history traits that impact on behavior and diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- André C. Pereira
- INIAV, IP- National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinary Research, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal;
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
- Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute (BioISI), Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Victor Bandeira
- Departamento de Biologia & CESAM, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (V.B.)
| | - Carlos Fonseca
- Departamento de Biologia & CESAM, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (V.B.)
| | - Mónica V. Cunha
- INIAV, IP- National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinary Research, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal;
- Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes (cE3c), Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
- Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute (BioISI), Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-214-403-500
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17
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Thornbury M, Sicheri J, Slaine P, Getz LJ, Finlayson-Trick E, Cook J, Guinard C, Boudreau N, Jakeman D, Rohde J, McCormick C. Characterization of novel lignocellulose-degrading enzymes from the porcupine microbiome using synthetic metagenomics. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0209221. [PMID: 30601862 PMCID: PMC6314593 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant cell walls are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, collectively known as lignocellulose. Microorganisms degrade lignocellulose to liberate sugars to meet metabolic demands. Using a metagenomic sequencing approach, we previously demonstrated that the microbiome of the North American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) is replete with genes that could encode lignocellulose-degrading enzymes. Here, we report the identification, synthesis and partial characterization of four novel genes from the porcupine microbiome encoding putative lignocellulose-degrading enzymes: β-glucosidase, α-L-arabinofuranosidase, β-xylosidase, and endo-1,4-β-xylanase. These genes were identified via conserved catalytic domains associated with cellulose- and hemicellulose-degradation. Phylogenetic trees were created for each of these putative enzymes to depict genetic relatedness to known enzymes. Candidate genes were synthesized and cloned into plasmid expression vectors for inducible protein expression and secretion. The putative β-glucosidase fusion protein was efficiently secreted but did not permit Escherichia coli (E. coli) to use cellobiose as a sole carbon source, nor did the affinity purified enzyme cleave p-Nitrophenyl β-D-glucopyranoside (p-NPG) substrate in vitro over a range of physiological pH levels (pH 5–7). The putative hemicellulose-degrading β-xylosidase and α-L-arabinofuranosidase enzymes also lacked in vitro enzyme activity, but the affinity purified endo-1,4-β-xylanase protein cleaved a 6-chloro-4-methylumbelliferyl xylobioside substrate in acidic and neutral conditions, with maximal activity at pH 7. At this optimal pH, KM, Vmax, and kcat were determined to be 32.005 ± 4.72 μM, 1.16x10-5 ± 3.55x10-7 M/s, and 94.72 s-1, respectively. Thus, our pipeline enabled successful identification and characterization of a novel hemicellulose-degrading enzyme from the porcupine microbiome. Progress towards the goal of introducing a complete lignocellulose-degradation pathway into E. coli will be accelerated by combining synthetic metagenomic approaches with functional metagenomic library screening, which can identify novel enzymes unrelated to those found in available databases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie Thornbury
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Jacob Sicheri
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Patrick Slaine
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Landon J. Getz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Emma Finlayson-Trick
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Jamie Cook
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Caroline Guinard
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Nicholas Boudreau
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - David Jakeman
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- College of Pharmacy, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - John Rohde
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Craig McCormick
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- * E-mail:
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