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Yoshihara T, Dobashi S, Naito H. Effects of preconditioning with heat stress on acute exercise-induced intracellular signaling in male rat gastrocnemius muscle. Physiol Rep 2024; 12:e15913. [PMID: 38185480 PMCID: PMC10771927 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Heat stress (HS) induces Akt/mTOR phosphorylation and FoxO3a signaling; however, whether a prior increase in heat shock protein 72 (HSP72) expression affects intracellular signaling following eccentric exercise remains unclear. We analyzed the effects of HS pretreatment on intramuscular signaling in response to acute exercise in 10-week-old male Wistar rats (n = 24). One leg of each rat was exposed to HS and the other served as an internal control (CT). Post-HS, rats were either rested or subjected to downhill treadmill running. Intramuscular signaling responses in the red and white regions of the gastrocnemius muscle were analyzed before, immediately after, or 1 h after exercise (n = 8/group). HS significantly increased HSP72 levels in both deep red and superficial white regions. Although HS did not affect exercise-induced mTOR signaling (S6K1/ERK) responses in the red region, mTOR phosphorylation in the white region was significantly higher in CT legs than in HS legs after exercise. Thr308 phosphorylation of Akt showed region-specific alteration with a decrease in the red region and an increase in the white region immediately after downhill running. Overall, a prior increase in HSP72 expression elicits fiber type-specific changes in exercise-induced Akt and mTOR phosphorylation in rat gastrocnemius muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shohei Dobashi
- Graduate School of Health and Sports ScienceJuntendo UniversityChibaJapan
- Institute of Health and Sport SciencesUniversity of TsukubaIbarakiJapan
| | - Hisashi Naito
- Graduate School of Health and Sports ScienceJuntendo UniversityChibaJapan
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2
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Viggars MR, Sutherland H, Cardozo CP, Jarvis JC. Conserved and species-specific transcriptional responses to daily programmed resistance exercise in rat and mouse. FASEB J 2023; 37:e23299. [PMID: 37994729 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202301611r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Mice are often used in gain or loss of function studies to understand how genes regulate metabolism and adaptation to exercise in skeletal muscle. Once-daily resistance training with electrical nerve stimulation produces hypertrophy of the dorsiflexors in rat, but not in mouse. Using implantable pulse generators, we assessed the acute transcriptional response (1-h post-exercise) after 2, 10, and 20 days of training in free-living mice and rats using identical nerve stimulation paradigms. RNA sequencing revealed strong concordance in the timecourse of many transcriptional responses in the tibialis anterior muscles of both species including responses related to "stress responses/immediate-early genes, and "collagen homeostasis," "ribosomal subunits," "autophagy," and "focal adhesion." However, pathways associated with energy metabolism including "carbon metabolism," "oxidative phosphorylation," "mitochondrial translation," "propanoate metabolism," and "valine, leucine, and isoleucine degradation" were oppositely regulated between species. These pathways were suppressed in the rat but upregulated in the mouse. Our transcriptional analysis suggests that although many pathways associated with growth show remarkable similarities between species, the absence of an actual growth response in the mouse may be because the mouse prioritizes energy metabolism, specifically the replenishment of fuel stores and intermediate metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Viggars
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
- Department of Physiology and Aging, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- Myology Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Hazel Sutherland
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Christopher P Cardozo
- Spinal Cord Damage Research Center, James J. Peters VA Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
- Icahn School of Medicine, Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jonathan C Jarvis
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
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3
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Ravara B, Giuriati W, Maccarone MC, Kern H, Masiero S, Carraro U. Optimized progression of Full-Body In-Bed Gym workout: an educational case report. Eur J Transl Myol 2023. [PMID: 37358234 PMCID: PMC10388607 DOI: 10.4081/ejtm.2023.11525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023] Open
Abstract
People suffering from fatigue syndromes spend less time exercising each day, thus aggravating their motor difficulties. Indeed, muscles and mobility deteriorate with age, while exercising muscles is the only sure countermeasure. It is useful to offer a safe and toll-free rehabilitation training: Full-Body In-Bed Gym, easy to learn and performe at home. We suggest a 10-20 min daily routine of easy and safe physical exercises that may improve the main 200 skeletal muscles used for every-day activities. Many of the exercises can be performed in bed (Full-Body In-Bed Gym), so hospital patients can learn this light workout before leaving the hospital. The routine consists of series of repetitions of 15 bodyweight exercises to be performed one after the other without time breaks in between. Alternating sequences of arm and leg exercises are followed by moving body parts in lying and sitting positions in bed. These are followed by series of tiptoeing off the bed. Progressive improvements can be tested by a series of push-ups on the floor. Starting from 3-5, number of repetitions are increased by adding 3 more every week. To maintain or even shorten total daily time of workout each movement is weekly speeded up. The devoted time every morning (or at least five days a week) to train all the major muscles of the body can remain under 10 minutes. Because there are no breaks during and between sets, the final push-ups become very challenging: at the end of the daily workout heart rate, depth and number of ventilations and frontal perspiration increase for a few minutes. We here provide an example of how to implement the progression of the Full-Body In-Bed Gym presenting an educational Case Report of a trained 80-year old person in stable pharmacological managements. In addition to strengthening the main muscles, including the ventilatory muscles, Although performed in bed, Full-Body In-Bed Gym is a resistance training equivalent to a short jog.. Started in early winter and continued regularly throughout spring and summer, Full-Body In-Bed Gym can help maintain independence of frail people, including those younger persons suffering with the fatigue syndrome related to the viral infection of the recent COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Ravara
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padua, Italy; CIR-Myo-Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy; A&C M-C Foundation for Translational Myology, Padua.
| | - Walter Giuriati
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padua.
| | - Maria Chiara Maccarone
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation School, University of Padova, Padua, Italy; Department of Neuroscience, Section of Rehabilitation, University of Padova, Padua.
| | - Helmut Kern
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Rehabilitation Research, St. Pölten, Austria; Institute of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Prim. Dr. H Kern GmbH, Amstetten.
| | - Stefano Masiero
- CIR-Myo-Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy; Department of Neuroscience, Section of Rehabilitation, University of Padova, Padua.
| | - Ugo Carraro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padua, Italy; CIR-Myo-Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy; A&C M-C Foundation for Translational Myology, Padua.
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Viggars MR, Sutherland H, Lanmüller H, Schmoll M, Bijak M, Jarvis JC. Adaptation of the transcriptional response to resistance exercise over 4 weeks of daily training. FASEB J 2023; 37:e22686. [PMID: 36468768 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202201418r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We present the time course of change in the muscle transcriptome 1 h after the last exercise bout of a daily resistance training program lasting 2, 10, 20, or 30 days. Daily exercise in rat tibialis anterior muscles (5 sets of 10 repetitions over 20 min) induced progressive muscle growth that approached a new stable state after 30 days. The acute transcriptional response changed along with progressive adaptation of the muscle phenotype. For example, expression of type 2B myosin was silenced. Time courses recently synthesized from human exercise studies do not demonstrate so clearly the interplay between the acute exercise response and the longer-term consequences of repeated exercise. We highlight classes of transcripts and transcription factors whose expression increases during the growth phase and declines again as the muscle adapts to a new daily pattern of activity and reduces its rate of growth. Myc appears to play a central role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Viggars
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.,Department of Physiology and Aging, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.,Myology Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Hazel Sutherland
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Hermann Lanmüller
- Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Schmoll
- Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Manfred Bijak
- Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jonathan C Jarvis
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
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Viggars MR, Wen Y, Peterson CA, Jarvis JC. Automated cross-sectional analysis of trained, severely atrophied and recovering rat skeletal muscles using MyoVision 2.0. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2022; 132:593-610. [PMID: 35050795 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00491.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The number of myonuclei within a muscle fiber is an important factor in muscle growth, but its regulation during muscle adaptation is not well understood. We aimed to elucidate the timecourse of myonuclear dynamics during endurance training, loaded and concentric resistance training, and nerve silencing-induced disuse atrophy with subsequent recovery. We modified tibialis anterior muscle activity in free-living rats with electrical stimulation from implantable pulse generators, or with implantable osmotic pumps delivering tetrodotoxin (TTX) to silence the motor nerve without transection. We used the updated, automated software MyoVision to measure fiber type-specific responses in whole tibialis anterior cross-sections (~8000 fibers each). Seven days of continuous low frequency stimulation (CLFS) reduced muscle mass (-12%), increased slower myosin isoforms and reduced IIX/IIB fibers (-32%) and substantially increased myonuclei especially in IIX/IIB fibers (55.5%). High load resistance training (Spillover), produced greater hypertrophy (~16%) in muscle mass and fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) than low load resistance training (concentric, ~6%) and was associated with myonuclear addition in all fiber types (35-46%). TTX-induced nerve silencing resulted in progressive loss in muscle mass, fiber CSA, and myonuclei per fiber cross-section (-50.7%, -53.7%, -40.7%, respectively at 14 days). Myonuclear loss occurred in a fiber type-independent manner, but subsequent recovery during voluntary habitual activity suggested that type IIX/IIB fibers contained more new myonuclei during recovery from severe atrophy. This study demonstrates the power and accuracy provided by the updated MyoVision software and introduces new models for studying myonuclear dynamics in training, detraining, retraining, repeated disuse, and recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Robert Viggars
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Sciences, grid.4425.7Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States.,Myology Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States
| | - Yuan Wen
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States.,Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States.,MyoAnalytics, LLC, Lexington, Kentucky, United States
| | - Charlotte A Peterson
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States.,Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States
| | - Jonathan C Jarvis
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise Sciences, grid.4425.7Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Turner DC, Gorski PP, Seaborne RA, Viggars M, Murphy M, Jarvis JC, Martin NR, Stewart CE, Sharples AP. Mechanical loading of bioengineered skeletal muscle in vitro recapitulates gene expression signatures of resistance exercise in vivo. J Cell Physiol 2021; 236:6534-6547. [PMID: 33586196 PMCID: PMC8653897 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the role of mechanical loading and exercise in skeletal muscle (SkM) is paramount for delineating the molecular mechanisms that govern changes in muscle mass. However, it is unknown whether loading of bioengineered SkM in vitro adequately recapitulates the molecular responses observed after resistance exercise (RE) in vivo. To address this, the transcriptional and epigenetic (DNA methylation) responses were compared after mechanical loading in bioengineered SkM in vitro and after RE in vivo. Specifically, genes known to be upregulated/hypomethylated after RE in humans were analyzed. Ninety-three percent of these genes demonstrated similar changes in gene expression post-loading in the bioengineered muscle when compared to acute RE in humans. Furthermore, similar differences in gene expression were observed between loaded bioengineered SkM and after programmed RT in rat SkM tissue. Hypomethylation occurred for only one of the genes analysed (GRIK2) post-loading in bioengineered SkM. To further validate these findings, DNA methylation and mRNA expression of known hypomethylated and upregulated genes post-acute RE in humans were also analyzed at 0.5, 3, and 24 h post-loading in bioengineered muscle. The largest changes in gene expression occurred at 3 h, whereby 82% and 91% of genes responded similarly when compared to human and rodent SkM respectively. DNA methylation of only a small proportion of genes analyzed (TRAF1, MSN, and CTTN) significantly increased post-loading in bioengineered SkM alone. Overall, mechanical loading of bioengineered SkM in vitro recapitulates the gene expression profile of human and rodent SkM after RE in vivo. Although some genes demonstrated differential DNA methylation post-loading in bioengineered SkM, such changes across the majority of genes analyzed did not closely mimic the epigenetic response to acute-RE in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C. Turner
- Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine (ISTM), School of Pharmacy and BioengineeringKeele UniversityStaffordshireUK
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit (SCAMP), Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group (EMARG), Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES)Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
- Randall Centre for Cell and Molecular Biophysics, School of Basic and Medical BiosciencesKing's College LondonLondonUK
| | - Piotr P. Gorski
- Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine (ISTM), School of Pharmacy and BioengineeringKeele UniversityStaffordshireUK
- Institute for Physical PerformanceNorwegian School of Sport Sciences (NiH)OsloNorway
| | - Robert A. Seaborne
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit (SCAMP), Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group (EMARG), Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES)Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
- Center for Genomics and Child Health, Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and DentistryQueen Mary University of LondonLondonUK
| | - Mark Viggars
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit (SCAMP), Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group (EMARG), Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES)Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
| | - Mark Murphy
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
| | - Jonathan C. Jarvis
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit (SCAMP), Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group (EMARG), Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES)Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
| | - Neil R.W. Martin
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health SciencesLoughborough UniversityLoughboroughUK
| | - Claire E. Stewart
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit (SCAMP), Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group (EMARG), Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences (RISES)Liverpool John Moores UniversityLiverpoolUK
| | - Adam P. Sharples
- Institute for Physical PerformanceNorwegian School of Sport Sciences (NiH)OsloNorway
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7
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Seaborne RA, Hughes DC, Turner DC, Owens DJ, Baehr LM, Gorski P, Semenova EA, Borisov OV, Larin AK, Popov DV, Generozov EV, Sutherland H, Ahmetov II, Jarvis JC, Bodine SC, Sharples AP. UBR5 is a novel E3 ubiquitin ligase involved in skeletal muscle hypertrophy and recovery from atrophy. J Physiol 2019; 597:3727-3749. [PMID: 31093990 DOI: 10.1113/jp278073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS We have recently identified that a HECT domain E3 ubiquitin ligase, named UBR5, is altered epigenetically (via DNA methylation) after human skeletal muscle hypertrophy, where its gene expression is positively correlated with increasing lean leg mass after training and retraining. In the present study we extensively investigate this novel and uncharacterised E3 ubiquitin ligase (UBR5) in skeletal muscle atrophy, recovery from atrophy and injury, anabolism and hypertrophy. We demonstrated that UBR5 was epigenetically altered via DNA methylation during recovery from atrophy. We also determined that UBR5 was alternatively regulated versus well characterised E3 ligases, MuRF1/MAFbx, at the gene expression level during atrophy, recovery from atrophy and hypertrophy. UBR5 also increased at the protein level during recovery from atrophy and injury, hypertrophy and during human muscle cell differentiation. Finally, in humans, genetic variations of the UBR5 gene were strongly associated with larger fast-twitch muscle fibres and strength/power performance versus endurance/untrained phenotypes. ABSTRACT We aimed to investigate a novel and uncharacterized E3 ubiquitin ligase in skeletal muscle atrophy, recovery from atrophy/injury, anabolism and hypertrophy. We demonstrated an alternate gene expression profile for UBR5 vs. well characterized E3-ligases, MuRF1/MAFbx, where, after atrophy evoked by continuous-low-frequency electrical-stimulation in rats, MuRF1/MAFbx were both elevated, yet UBR5 was unchanged. Furthermore, after recovery of muscle mass post TTX-induced atrophy in rats, UBR5 was hypomethylated and increased at the gene expression level, whereas a suppression of MuRF1/MAFbx was observed. At the protein level, we also demonstrated a significant increase in UBR5 after recovery of muscle mass from hindlimb unloading in both adult and aged rats, as well as after recovery from atrophy evoked by nerve crush injury in mice. During anabolism and hypertrophy, UBR5 gene expression increased following acute loading in three-dimensional bioengineered mouse muscle in vitro, and after chronic electrical stimulation-induced hypertrophy in rats in vivo, without increases in MuRF1/MAFbx. Additionally, UBR5 protein abundance increased following functional overload-induced hypertrophy of the plantaris muscle in mice and during differentiation of primary human muscle cells. Finally, in humans, genetic association studies (>700,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms) demonstrated that the A alleles of rs10505025 and rs4734621 single nucleotide polymorphisms in the UBR5 gene were strongly associated with larger cross-sectional area of fast-twitch muscle fibres and favoured strength/power vs. endurance/untrained phenotypes. Overall, we suggest that: (i) UBR5 comprises a novel E3 ubiquitin ligase that is inversely regulated to MuRF1/MAFbx; (ii) UBR5 is epigenetically regulated; and (iii) UBR5 is elevated at both the gene expression and protein level during recovery from skeletal muscle atrophy and hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Seaborne
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit, Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.,Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine (ISTM), School of Medicine, Keele University, Keele, UK.,Centre for Genomics and Child Health, Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - David C Hughes
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Daniel C Turner
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit, Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.,Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine (ISTM), School of Medicine, Keele University, Keele, UK
| | - Daniel J Owens
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit, Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Leslie M Baehr
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Piotr Gorski
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit, Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.,Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine (ISTM), School of Medicine, Keele University, Keele, UK
| | - Ekaterina A Semenova
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia
| | - Oleg V Borisov
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia.,Institute for Genomic Statistics and Bioinformatics, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Andrey K Larin
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia
| | - Daniil V Popov
- Laboratory of Exercise Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Edward V Generozov
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia
| | - Hazel Sutherland
- Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ildus I Ahmetov
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Kazan State Medical University, Kazan, Russia.,Department of Physical Education, Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, Russia.,Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Jonathan C Jarvis
- Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Sue C Bodine
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Adam P Sharples
- Stem Cells, Ageing and Molecular Physiology Unit, Exercise Metabolism and Adaptation Research Group, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.,Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine (ISTM), School of Medicine, Keele University, Keele, UK
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