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Sponseller B, Evans T. Plants Causing Toxic Myopathies. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2024; 40:45-59. [PMID: 38151404 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2023.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Boxelder and sycamore maple contain hypoglycin A (HGA), the toxic metabolite of which, MCPA-CoA, inhibits fatty acid β-oxidation, causing seasonal pasture myopathy (SPM) or atypical myopathy (AM), respectively. White snakeroot and rayless goldenrod contain multiple benzofuran ketones (BFKs). The identity/toxicity of BFKs appear variable, possibly involving interactions between toxins/toxic metabolites, but ultimately inhibit cellular energy metabolism. Unthrifty horses grazing sparse pastures during the fall appear predisposed to these plant-associated, frequently fatal, toxic myopathies. Toxidromes are characterized by varying degrees of rhabdomyolysis and cardiac myonecrosis, with plant toxins remaining toxic in hay and being excreted in milk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Sponseller
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, 1809 South Riverside Drive, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
| | - Tim Evans
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and MU Extension, University of Missouri, W226 Veterinary Medicine Building, 1520 East Rollins Street, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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2
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Engel AM, El-Khatib AH, Klevenhusen F, Weiss M, Aboling S, Sachse B, Schäfer B, Weigel S, Pieper R, Fischer-Tenhagen C. Detection of Hypoglycin A and MCPrG Metabolites in the Milk and Urine of Pasture Dairy Cows after Intake of Sycamore Seedlings. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023. [PMID: 37419492 PMCID: PMC10360155 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c01248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
Hypoglycin A (HGA), methylenecyclopropylglycine (MCPrG), hypoglycin B (HGB), and γ-glutamyl-α-(methylenecyclopropyl) glycine (γ-glutamyl-MCPrG) are secondary plant metabolites occurring in sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) as well as several other Sapindaceae (e.g., Blighia sapida). By interfering with energy metabolism, they may cause severe intoxication in humans and other species. However, to date, there is not enough data available concerning the intake, metabolism, or excretion of sycamore maple toxins in dairy cows. In May 2022, five cows were observed over four days, when they had first access to a pasture with two sycamore maples. Grazing of their seedlings that grew numerously in between the pasture plants was monitored by direct observation. Milk samples were drawn both from individual cows and from the bulk tank. Spontaneous urine samples were collected from all cows on day 3 after access to the pasture. Seedlings (100 g) were sampled on the pasture and analyzed, together with milk and urine samples, for sycamore toxins and their metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Cows ingested sycamore seedlings while grazing. Values of HGA in milk were below the limit of quantification. However, metabolites of HGA and MCPrG were detected in individual milk samples already at the end of the first day of grazing. Urine samples of all five cows showed higher concentrations of conjugated HGA and MCPrG metabolites than in milk. Observations suggest that dairy cows may have a low susceptibility toward sycamore maple toxins. However, whether this could be attributed to foregut fermenting species in general requires further elucidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Maria Engel
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ahmed H El-Khatib
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Fenja Klevenhusen
- Faculty of Organic Agricultural Sciences, University of Kassel, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany
| | - Michael Weiss
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sabine Aboling
- Institute for Animal Nutrition, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Benjamin Sachse
- Department Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Schäfer
- Department Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Weigel
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Pieper
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Carola Fischer-Tenhagen
- Center for Protection of Laboratory Animals, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), 12277 Berlin, Germany
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3
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A sensitive LC-MS/MS method for the quantification of the plant toxins hypoglycin A and methylenecyclopropylglycine and their metabolites in cow's milk and urine and application to farm milk samples from Germany. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023; 415:1933-1942. [PMID: 36877265 PMCID: PMC10050036 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04607-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
Hypoglycin A (HGA) and its homologue methylenecyclopropylglycine (MCPrG) are present in ackee and lychee as well as seeds, leaves, and seedlings of some maple (Acer) species. They are toxic to some animal species and humans. The determination of HGA, MCPrG, and their glycine and carnitine metabolites in blood and urine is a useful tool for screening for potential exposure to these toxins. In addition, HGA, MCPrG, and/or their metabolites have been detected in milk. In this work, simple and sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) methods without derivatization were developed and validated for the quantification of HGA, MCPrG, and their metabolites in cow's milk and urine. An extraction procedure from milk samples has been developed, whereas a dilute-and-shoot approach was implemented for urine samples. For quantification, the MS/MS analysis was performed in multiple reaction monitoring mode. The methods were validated according to the European Union guidelines using blank raw milk and urine as matrices. The limit of quantification presented here for HGA in milk (1.12 µg/L) is noticeably lower than the lowest published limit of detection (9 µg/L). Acceptable values for recovery (89-106% and 85-104% in milk and urine, respectively) and precision (≤ 20%) were obtained for all the quality control levels. The stability of HGA and MCPrG in frozen milk over a period of 40 weeks has been demonstrated. The method was applied to 68 milk samples from 35 commercial dairy farms and showed the absence of any quantifiable amounts of HGA, MCPrG, and their metabolites.
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Jahn P, Dobešová D, Brumarová R, Tóthová K, Kopecká A, Friedecký D. Dynamics of acylcarnitines, hypoglycin A, méthylènecyclopropylglycine and their metabolites in a Kladruber stallion with atypical myopathy. Vet Q 2022; 42:183-191. [PMID: 36114619 PMCID: PMC9518284 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2022.2126537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine atypical myopathy (AM also referred to as multiple acyl-CoA dehydrogenases deficiency [MADD]) is thought to be caused by toxins metabolized from hypoglycin A (HGA) and méthylènecyclopropylglycine (MCPrG). HGA is contained in the seeds and seedlings of the sycamore tree (Acer pseudoplatanus); MCPrG has so far only been confirmed in seeds. Among other things, these substances can disrupt the fatty acids β-oxidation pathway with the subsequent accumulation of certain acylcarnitines. The tentative diagnosis is based on anamnesis and clinical signs and can be verified by the detection of elevated creatine kinase activity, specific profile of acylcarnitines and the presence of HGA, MCPrG conjugates and/or their metabolites in peripheral blood and/or urine. Dry blood spots were collected for 15 days from a 3.5-year-old stallion which had been affected by AM and, as a control group, from twelve healthy horses. Two mass spectrometry methods were used for the analysis of 31 acylcarnitines, carnitine, HGA, MCPrG and their metabolites. HGA and six increased acylcarnitines were detected in the patient’s blood throughout the monitoring period. Nine acylcarnitines were strongly correlated with HGA. Multivariate statistical analysis showed a clear separation of samples from the AM horse, where the metabolic profile tended to normalization in the later days after intoxication. Due to the longer persistence in the blood, the detection of HGA and elevated acylcarnitines profile appear to be an appropriate tool to confirm the diagnosis of AM, compared to metabolic products of HGA and MCPrG even in advanced cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Jahn
- Equine Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Dana Dobešová
- Laboratory for Inherited Metabolic Disorders, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, University Hospital Olomouc and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Radana Brumarová
- Laboratory for Inherited Metabolic Disorders, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, University Hospital Olomouc and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Katarína Tóthová
- Equine Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Andrea Kopecká
- Equine Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - David Friedecký
- Laboratory for Inherited Metabolic Disorders, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, University Hospital Olomouc and Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacký University Olomouc, Czech Republic
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5
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El-Khatib AH, Engel AM, Weigel S. Co-Occurrence of Hypoglycin A and Hypoglycin B in Sycamore and Box Elder Maple Proved by LC-MS/MS and LC-HR-MS. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14090608. [PMID: 36136546 PMCID: PMC9504185 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14090608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoglycin A (HGA) and methylenecyclpropylglycine (MCPrG) are formed by some maple trees (Acer species) and have been associated with incidences of atypical myopathy among horses in pastures. In this work, a simple and sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS) method without derivatization was developed for the quantification of HGA and MCPrG in maple samples and validated according to EU guidelines. The LOQ presented here for HGA (16.4 µg/kg) is considerably lower than the lowest published LOQ (500 µg/kg). This method confirms that sycamore and box elder maple contain considerable amounts of HGA and MCPrG. In addition, the presence of the dipeptides hypoglycin B and γ-glutamyl-MCPrG in these two maple species is shown using high-resolution MS. This is the first report on the presence of these dipeptides in maple since 1973. The presence of HGB and γ-glutamyl-MCPrG could change the way we understand animal intoxication following the ingestion of maple.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed H El-Khatib
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Department for Safety in the Food Chain, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna Maria Engel
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Department for Safety in the Food Chain, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Weigel
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Department for Safety in the Food Chain, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
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6
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Wouters CP, Toquet MP, Renaud B, François AC, Fortier-Guillaume J, Marcillaud-Pitel C, Boemer F, De Tullio P, Richard EA, Votion DM. Metabolomic Signatures Discriminate Horses with Clinical Signs of Atypical Myopathy from Healthy Co-grazing Horses. J Proteome Res 2021; 20:4681-4692. [PMID: 34435779 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Atypical myopathy (AM) is a severe rhabdomyolysis syndrome that occurs in grazing horses. Despite the presence of toxins in their blood, all horses from the same pasture are not prone to display clinical signs of AM. The objective of this study was to compare the blood metabolomic profiles of horses with AM clinical signs with those of healthy co-grazing (Co-G) horses. To do so, plasma samples from 5 AM horses and 11 Co-G horses were investigated using untargeted metabolomics. Metabolomic data were evaluated using unsupervised, supervised, and pathway analyses. Unsupervised principal component analysis performed with all detected features separated AM and healthy Co-G horses. Supervised analyses had identified 1276 features showing differential expression between both groups. Among them, 46 metabolites, belonging predominantly to the fatty acid, fatty ester, and amino acid chemical classes, were identified by standard comparison. Fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids, organic dicarboxylic acids, and fatty esters were detected with higher intensities in AM horses in link with the toxins' pathological mechanism. The main relevant pathways were lipid metabolism; valine, leucine, and isoleucine metabolism; and glycine metabolism. This study revealed characteristic metabolite changes in the plasma of clinically affected horses, which might ultimately help scientists and field veterinarians to detect and manage AM. The raw data of metabolomics are available in the MetaboLights database with the access number MTBLS2579.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clovis P Wouters
- LABÉO (Frank Duncombe), 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France.,Normandie Université, UniCaen, EA7450 Biotargen, 3 rue Nelson Mandela, 14280 Saint-Contest, France.,Equine Pole, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium.,Pommier-Nutrition, 28170 Châteauneuf-en-Thymerais, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Toquet
- LABÉO (Frank Duncombe), 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France.,Normandie Université, UniCaen, EA7450 Biotargen, 3 rue Nelson Mandela, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
| | - Benoit Renaud
- Service of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Functional Sciences, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart Tilman, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Anne-Christine François
- Service of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Functional Sciences, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Sart Tilman, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | | | | | - François Boemer
- Biochemical Genetics Lab, Department of Human Genetics, CHU of Liege, University of Liege, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Pascal De Tullio
- Center of Interdisciplinary Research on Medicines, Metabolomics group, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Eric A Richard
- LABÉO (Frank Duncombe), 1 route de Rosel, 14053 Caen Cedex 4, France.,Normandie Université, UniCaen, EA7450 Biotargen, 3 rue Nelson Mandela, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
| | - Dominique-Marie Votion
- Equine Pole, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
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In Vitro Assays for the Assessment of Impaired Mitochondrial Bioenergetics in Equine Atypical Myopathy. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11070719. [PMID: 34357091 PMCID: PMC8307747 DOI: 10.3390/life11070719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine atypical myopathy is a seasonal intoxication of grazing equids. In Europe, this poisoning is associated with the ingestion of toxins contained in the seeds and seedlings of the sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus). The toxins involved in atypical myopathy are known to inhibit ß-oxidation of fatty acids and induce a general decrease in mitochondrial respiration, as determined by high-resolution respirometry applied to muscle samples taken from cases of atypical myopathy. The severe impairment of mitochondrial bioenergetics induced by the toxins may explain the high rate of mortality observed: about 74% of horses with atypical myopathy die, most within the first two days of signs of poisoning. The mechanism of toxicity is not completely elucidated yet. To improve our understanding of the pathological process and to assess therapeutic candidates, we designed in vitro assays using equine skeletal myoblasts cultured from muscle biopsies and subjected to toxins involved in atypical myopathy. We established that equine primary myoblasts do respond to one of the toxins incriminated in the disease.
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Hirz M, Gregersen HA, Sander J, Votion DM, Schänzer A, Köhler K, Herden C. Atypical myopathy in 2 Bactrian camels. J Vet Diagn Invest 2021; 33:961-965. [PMID: 34092152 DOI: 10.1177/10406387211020721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Atypical myopathy (AM) is an acute seasonal rhabdomyolysis seen primarily in equids, caused by the ingestion of sycamore maple samaras containing hypoglycin A (HGA) and methylenecyclopropyl-glycine (MCPG). Toxic metabolites inhibit acyl-CoA dehydrogenases and enoyl-CoA hydratases, causing selective hyaline degeneration of type I muscle fibers. Two zoo-kept Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) with a fatal course of AM had sudden onset of muscle pain and weakness, recumbency, and dysphagia, accompanied by increased serum creatine kinase activity and detection in serum of HGA, MCPG, and metabolites. Medical treatment was ineffective. At postmortem examination, sycamore maple tree material was found within the first gastric compartment of the 2-y-old gelding. Although musculature was macroscopically normal, histologically, monophasic hyaline degeneration was marked within type I fibers of intercostal and hypoglossal muscles of the gelding, and in neck, tongue, and masticatory muscles of the cow. The ingestion of sycamore maple material can cause AM in Bactrian camels, and trees of the Sapindaceae family should be avoided in enclosures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Hirz
- Institutes for Veterinary-Pathology, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | | | | | - Dominique M Votion
- Equine Pole, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Belgium
| | - Anne Schänzer
- Neuropathology, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Kernt Köhler
- Institutes for Veterinary-Pathology, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Christiane Herden
- Institutes for Veterinary-Pathology, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
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9
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Bochnia M, Ziegler J, Glatter M, Zeyner A. Hypoglycin A in Cow's Milk-A Pilot Study. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060381. [PMID: 34073628 PMCID: PMC8230099 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoglycin A (HGA) originating from soapberry fruits (litchi, and ackee) seeds or seedlings from the sycamore maple (SM) tree (related to Sapindaceae) may cause Jamaican vomiting sickness in humans and atypical myopathy in horses and ruminants. A possible transfer into dairy cow’s milk cannot be ruled out since the literature has revealed HGA in the milk of mares and in the offal of captured deer following HGA intoxication. From a study, carried out for another purpose, bulk raw milk samples from four randomly selected dairy farms were available. The cows were pastured in the daytime. A sycamore maple tree was found on the pasture of farm No. 1 only. Bulk milk from the individual tank or milk filling station was sampled in parallels and analyzed for HGA by LC-ESI-MS/MS. Measurable concentrations of HGA occurred only in milk from farm No. 1 and amounted to 120 and 489 nmol/L. Despite low and very variable HGA concentrations, the results indicate that the ingested toxin, once eaten, is transferred into the milk. However, it is unknown how much HGA the individual cow ingested during grazing and what amount was transferred into the bulk milk samples. As a prerequisite for a possible future safety assessment, carry-over studies are needed. Furthermore, the toxins’ stability during milk processing should also be investigated as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandy Bochnia
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (M.B.); (M.G.)
| | - Jörg Ziegler
- Department of Molecular Signal Processing, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany;
| | - Maren Glatter
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (M.B.); (M.G.)
| | - Annette Zeyner
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany; (M.B.); (M.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-345-5522716
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Wimmer-Scherr C, Taminiau B, Renaud B, van Loon G, Palmers K, Votion D, Amory H, Daube G, Cesarini C. Comparison of Fecal Microbiota of Horses Suffering from Atypical Myopathy and Healthy Co-Grazers. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11020506. [PMID: 33672034 PMCID: PMC7919468 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine atypical myopathy (AM) is caused by hypoglycin A (HGA) and methylenecyclopropylglycine (MCPG) intoxication resulting from the ingestion of seeds or seedlings of some Acer tree species. Interestingly, not all horses pasturing in the same toxic environment develop signs of the disease. In other species, it has been shown that the intestinal microbiota has an impact on digestion, metabolism, immune stimulation and protection from disease. The objective of this study was to characterize and compare fecal microbiota of horses suffering from AM and healthy co-grazers. Furthermore, potential differences in fecal microbiota regarding the outcome of diseased animals were assessed. This prospective observational study included 59 horses with AM (29 survivors and 30 non-survivors) referred to three Belgian equine hospitals and 26 clinically healthy co-grazers simultaneously sharing contaminated pastures during spring and autumn outbreak periods. Fresh fecal samples (rectal or within 30 min of defecation) were obtained from all horses and bacterial taxonomy profiling obtained by 16S amplicon sequencing was used to identify differentially distributed bacterial taxa between AM-affected horses and healthy co-grazers. Fecal microbial diversity and evenness were significantly (p < 0.001) higher in AM-affected horses as compared with their non-affected co-grazers. The relative abundance of families Ruminococcaceae, Christensenellaceae and Akkermansiaceae were higher (p ≤ 0.001) whereas those of the Lachnospiraceae (p = 0.0053), Bacteroidales (p < 0.0001) and Clostridiales (p = 0.0402) were lower in horses with AM, especially in those with a poor prognosis. While significant shifts were observed, it is still unclear whether they result from the disease or might be involved in the onset of disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Wimmer-Scherr
- Equine Clinical Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bât. B41, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (C.W.-S.); (H.A.)
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (B.T.); (B.R.); (D.V.); (G.D.)
| | - Bernard Taminiau
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (B.T.); (B.R.); (D.V.); (G.D.)
- Department of Food Sciences–Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, Bât. B43b, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Benoît Renaud
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (B.T.); (B.R.); (D.V.); (G.D.)
- Department of Functional Sciences, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bât. B41, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Gunther van Loon
- Large Animal Internal Medicine, Gent University, 9820 Gent, Belgium;
| | | | - Dominique Votion
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (B.T.); (B.R.); (D.V.); (G.D.)
| | - Hélène Amory
- Equine Clinical Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bât. B41, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (C.W.-S.); (H.A.)
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (B.T.); (B.R.); (D.V.); (G.D.)
| | - Georges Daube
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (B.T.); (B.R.); (D.V.); (G.D.)
- Department of Food Sciences–Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, Bât. B43b, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Carla Cesarini
- Equine Clinical Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bât. B41, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (C.W.-S.); (H.A.)
- Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (B.T.); (B.R.); (D.V.); (G.D.)
- Correspondence:
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11
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Renaud B, François AC, Boemer F, Kruse C, Stern D, Piot A, Petitjean T, Gustin P, Votion DM. Grazing Mares on Pasture with Sycamore Maples: A Potential Threat to Suckling Foals and Food Safety through Milk Contamination. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11010087. [PMID: 33466424 PMCID: PMC7824825 DOI: 10.3390/ani11010087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Equine atypical myopathy is seasonal poisoning resulting from the ingestion of seeds and seedlings of the sycamore maple that contains toxins. Literature mentions several cases of intoxication among gravid mares and in unweaned foals. The objective of this study was to determine whether the toxins responsible for atypical myopathy could pass to the foal via suckling. Four mares that were pasturing with sycamore in the vicinity were milked. Analysis revealed the presence of toxins in milk. This unprecedented observation could partially explain cases of unweaned foals suffering from atypical myopathy. However, a transplacental transfer of the toxin cannot be excluded for newborn cases. Besides being a source of contamination for offspring, milk contamination by toxins from fruits of trees of the Sapindaceae family might constitute a potential risk for food safety regarding other species’ raw milk or dairy products. Abstract Equine atypical myopathy (AM) is seasonal intoxication resulting from the ingestion of seeds and seedlings of the sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) that contain toxins, among them, hypoglycin A (HGA). Literature mentions several cases of AM among gravid mares and in unweaned foals. The objective of this study was to determine whether HGA and/or its metabolite are present in milk from grazing mares exposed to sycamore maple trees as confirmed by detection of HGA and its metabolite in their blood. Four mare/foal couples were included in the study. Both HGA and its metabolite were detectable in all but one of the milk samples. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing transfer of HGA to the milk. This unprecedented observation could partially explain cases of unweaned foals suffering from AM. However, a transplacental transfer of the toxin cannot be excluded for newborn foals. Besides being a source of contamination for offspring, milk contamination by toxins from fruits of trees of the Sapindaceae family might constitute a potential risk for food safety regarding other species’ raw milk or dairy products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoît Renaud
- Department of Functional Sciences, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.-C.F.); (P.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Anne-Christine François
- Department of Functional Sciences, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.-C.F.); (P.G.)
| | - François Boemer
- Biochemical Genetics Laboratory, CHU Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (F.B.); (A.P.)
| | - Caroline Kruse
- Department of Functional Sciences, Physiology and Sport Medicine, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - David Stern
- Equine Pole, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (D.S.); (D.-M.V.)
| | - Amandine Piot
- Biochemical Genetics Laboratory, CHU Sart Tilman, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (F.B.); (A.P.)
| | - Thierry Petitjean
- Association Régionale de Santé et d’Identification Animales (ARSIA—ASBL), Animal Health Department, 5590 Ciney, Belgium;
| | - Pascal Gustin
- Department of Functional Sciences, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.-C.F.); (P.G.)
| | - Dominique-Marie Votion
- Equine Pole, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (D.S.); (D.-M.V.)
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Sander J, Terhardt M, Janzen N. Detection of maple toxins in mare's milk. J Vet Intern Med 2020; 35:606-609. [PMID: 33336854 PMCID: PMC7848382 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.16004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plants from the Sapindaceae family that are consumed by horses (maple) and humans (ackee and litchi) are known to contain the toxins hypoglycin A and methylenecyclopropylglycine which cause seasonally occurring myopathy in horses and entero‐encephalopathic sickness in humans. Vertical transmission of these toxins from a mare to her foal has been described once. However the mare's milk was not available for analysis in this case. We investigated mare's milk in a similar case. Objective We hypothesized that hypoglycin A and methylenecyclopropylglycine, like other amino acids' are secreted into the milk. Animals Mare with atypical myopathy. Methods A sample of the mare's milk and 6 commercial horse milk samples were extracted with a methanolic standard solution and analyzed for hypoglycin A, methylenecyclopropylglycine, and metabolites using tandem mass spectrometry after column chromatographic separation. Results There were hypoglycin A (0.4 μg/L) and the associated metabolites methylenecyclopropylacetyl glycine and carnitine (18.5 and 24.6 μg/L) plus increased concentrations of several acylcarnitines in the milk. The milk also contained methylenecyclopropylformyl glycine and carnitine (0.8 and 60 μg/L). The latter substances were also detected in 1 of 6 commercial horse milk samples. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Transmission of the maple toxins can occur through mare's milk. Vertical transmission of Sapindacea toxins might also have importance for human medicine, for example, after consumption of ackee or litchi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Sander
- Screening-Labor Hannover, Ronnenberg, Germany.,Department of Hygiene, Hanover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Nils Janzen
- Screening-Labor Hannover, Ronnenberg, Germany.,Department of Clinical Chemistry, Hanover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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Bochnia M, Ziemssen E, Sander J, Stief B, Zeyner A. Methylenecyclopropylglycine and hypoglycin A intoxication in three Pére David's Deers (Elaphurus davidianus) with atypical myopathy. Vet Med Sci 2020; 7:998-1005. [PMID: 33314647 PMCID: PMC8136943 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypoglycin A (HGA) and methylenecyclopropylglycine (MCPrG) from seeds/seedlings of Sycamore maple (SM, Acer pseudoplatanus) causes atypical myopathy (AM) in horses. AM was not known to occur in wild ruminants until several fatalities in milus (Elaphurus davidianus) following the ingestion of HGA in SM seeds. However, a role for MCPrG has not previously been evaluated. OBJECTIVES To test the hypothesis that MCPrG is also a major factor in AM in milus, three milus (M1, M2, M3) from the Zoo Dresden (aged 7-11 years, 2 females and 1 male, in good nutritional condition) that developed AM were studied. METHODS Serum, urine and methanol extracts from the liver, kidney, rumen digesta and faeces were analysed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for HGA, MCPrG and for conjugates of carnitine (C) and glycine (G): Methylenecyclopropylacetyl (MCPA)-G, MCPA-C, Methylenecyclopropylformyl (MCPF)-G, MCPF-C, butyryl-C and isobutyryl-C. RESULTS HGA in serum was high (M2 480 nmol/L; M3 460 nmol/L), but MCPrG was not. HGA and MCPrG were found in rumen and faeces extracts, and MCPrG was also identified in the liver. Metabolites of HGA and MCPrG were high in serum, urine and liver, but not in the rumen or faeces. CONCLUSIONS This study shows that MCPrG is involved in the pathophysiology of AM in milus. The metabolism of MCPrG is considered to be faster because, after ingestion, the specific metabolites appear highly concentrated in the serum. The high toxin concentration in the liver suggests that a possible transfer into products for human consumption may pose a risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandy Bochnia
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | | | | | - Birgit Stief
- Landesuntersuchungsanstalt für das Gesundheits- und Veterinärwesen, Dresden, Germany
| | - Annette Zeyner
- Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle (Saale), Germany
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Sander J, Terhardt M, Janzen N. Study on the Metabolic Effects of Repeated Consumption of Canned Ackee. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:14603-14609. [PMID: 33233889 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c06235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ackee fruits (Blighia sapida), an important food source in some tropical countries, can be the cause of serious poisoning. Ackees contain hypoglycin A and methylenecyclopropylglycine. Experiments were undertaken by a volunteer to elucidate the metabolic details of poisoning. Rapid intestinal absorption of the toxins was followed by their slow degradation to methylenecyclopropylacetyl and methylenecyclopropylformyl conjugates. Impairment of the metabolism of branched chain amino acids and ß-oxidation of fatty acids was found. Reduced enzyme activities were observed for several days after ingestion. A defined dose of fruit material caused significantly higher concentrations of metabolites when consumed 24 h after a previous ingestion than when consumed only once. The accumulation of toxins, toxin metabolites, and products of the intermediate metabolism after repeated consumption may, at least partly, explain the high frequency of fatal cases observed during harvesting. No inhibition of enzymes that degrade long-chain acyl compounds was observed in the experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Sander
- Screening-Labor Hannover, Postbox 91 10 09, 30430 Hannover, Germany
- Department of Hygiene, Hanover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Strasse 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Michael Terhardt
- Screening-Labor Hannover, Postbox 91 10 09, 30430 Hannover, Germany
| | - Nils Janzen
- Screening-Labor Hannover, Postbox 91 10 09, 30430 Hannover, Germany
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Hanover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Strasse 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
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Aboling S, Scharmann F, Bunzel D. Equine atypical myopathy: consumption of sycamore maple seedlings ( Acer pseudoplatanus) by pastured horses is driven by seedling maturity and might be associated with phenolic compounds. Vet Rec 2020; 187:e116. [PMID: 32862135 DOI: 10.1136/vr.105736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Poisoning with Acer pseudoplatanus L. in horses contradicts the hypothesis of coexistence between plants and vertebrate herbivores being mediated through antipastoral traits as toxins. However, incidental observations showed that horses evaded Acer seedlings with primary leaves. The objective of the present cross-discipline study was (i) to analyse whether developmental stages of A. pseudoplatanus L. differed as to phenolics hypothesised as antipastoral traits, and (ii) to observe systematically the selection behaviour of pastured horses towards A. pseudoplatanus seedlings. METHODS Phenolic profiles of five developmental stages from fruits to seedlings of progressing age up to adult leaves of A. pseudoplatanus and Acer campestre L. were characterised. Video recordings of grazing behaviour of 29 pastured horses towards seedlings of A. pseudoplatanus resulted into 117 sequences as additional field data. RESULTS The horses ingested 19.1 per cent of juvenile seedlings with cotyledons (1.65 mg total phenolics/g fresh weight (FW), 82 compounds, 0.02 mg total gallic acid/g FW) yet only 5.46 per cent of older seedlings with primary leaves (8.48 mg total phenolics/g FW, 120 compounds, 3.13 mg total gallic acid/g FW). CONCLUSION Horses distinguished between seedlings in distinct stages that could be chemically distinguished, too. Acer seedlings with primary leaves provide a strong, but not complete antipastoral effect that correlates with dramatic changes in phenolic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Aboling
- Institute for Animal Nutrition, Tierarztliche Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Franziska Scharmann
- Department of Safety and Quality of Fruit and Vegetables, Max Rubner-Institute Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Diana Bunzel
- Department of Safety and Quality of Fruit and Vegetables, Max Rubner-Institute Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Karlsruhe, Germany
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Sarkar A, Datta D, Datta SK, John TJ. Acute encephalopathy in children in Muzaffarpur, India: a review of aetiopathogenesis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2020; 114:704-711. [DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/traa036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
AbstractThe acute encephalopathy occurring in children in Muzaffarpur, India, also recognised in other litchi-cultivating areas of India, Bangladesh, Vietnam and China, had previously been linked to litchi consumption. Recently, it has been identified as hypoglycaemic encephalopathy of an unusual aetiology with three key factors: undernutrition, prolonged fasting and litchi consumption. A second set of investigators has independently reconfirmed the diagnosis and the three-factor aetiology. Skipping the evening meal with an intake of large amounts of litchi in undernourished children is causative. Early-morning hypoglycaemia with an inadequate glycogen store leads to initiation of gluconeogenesis and fatty acid β-oxidation, but methylene cyclopropyl alanine and glycine present in the litchi aril block the fatty acid β-oxidation cycle. The outcomes are uncorrected hypoglycaemia and encephalopathy due to the entry of metabolic intermediates that cross the blood-brain barrier and affect neuronal function. Suggested measures include early 10% dextrose infusion. Awareness about the disease is of prime importance. The diagnosis and aetiopathogenesis are still under question from a part of the scientific community. This review was undertaken to present a comprehensive view of hypoglycaemic encephalopathy and to remove some of the lingering doubts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhirup Sarkar
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, IN 110029, India
| | - Debatri Datta
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprosy, Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata-700073, India
| | - Sudip Kumar Datta
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, IN 110029, India
| | - T Jacob John
- Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu 632004, India
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Votion DM, François AC, Kruse C, Renaud B, Farinelle A, Bouquieaux MC, Marcillaud-Pitel C, Gustin P. Answers to the Frequently Asked Questions Regarding Horse Feeding and Management Practices to Reduce the Risk of Atypical Myopathy. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10020365. [PMID: 32102384 PMCID: PMC7071031 DOI: 10.3390/ani10020365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Equine atypical myopathy is a severe intoxication of grazing equids resulting from the ingestion of samaras or seedlings of trees from the Acer species. The sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) is involved in European cases whereas the box elder (Acer negundo) is recognized as the cause of this seasonal pasture myopathy in the Unites States of America. In Europe, young and inactive animals with a thin to normal body condition and no feed supplementation, except for hay in autumn, are at higher risk. The risk is also associated with full time pasturing in a humid environment. Indeed, dead leaves piling up in autumn as well as, the presence of trees and/or woods presumably exposes the horses to the sycamore maple. This manuscript answers the most frequently asked questions arising from the equine field about feeding and management of equines to reduce the risk of atypical myopathy. All answers are based on data collected from 2006 to 2019 by the “Atypical Myopathy Alert Group” (AMAG, Belgium) and the “Réseau d’épidémiosurveillance en Pathologie équine” (RESPE, France) as well as on a review of the most recent literature. Abstract In 2014, atypical myopathy (AM) was linked to Acer pseudoplatanus (sycamore maple) in Europe. The emergence of this seasonal intoxication caused by a native tree has raised many questions. This manuscript aims at answering the five most frequently asked questions (FAQs) regarding (1) identification of toxic trees; reduction of risk at the level of (2) pastures and (3) equids; (4) the risk associated with pastures with sycamores that have always been used without horses being poisoned and (5) the length of the risk periods. Answers were found in a literature review and data gathered by AM surveillance networks. A guide is offered to differentiate common maple trees (FAQ1). In order to reduce the risk of AM at pasture level: Avoid humid pastures; permanent pasturing; spreading of manure for pasture with sycamores in the vicinity and avoid sycamore maple trees around pasture (FAQ2). To reduce the risk of AM at horse level: Reduce pasturing time according to weather conditions and to less than six hours a day during risk periods for horses on risk pasture; provide supplementary feeds including toxin-free forage; water from the distribution network; vitamins and a salt block (FAQ3). All pastures with a sycamore tree in the vicinity are at risk (FAQ4). Ninety-four percent of cases occur over two 3-month periods, starting in October and in March, for cases resulting from seeds and seedlings ingestion, respectively (FAQ5).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique-Marie Votion
- Equine Pole, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lieège, 4000 Liège 1 (Sart Tilman), Belgium; (D.-M.V.); (M.-C.B.)
| | - Anne-Christine François
- Department of Functional Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), University of Liège, 4000 Liège 1 (Sart Tilman), Belgium; (B.R.); (P.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Caroline Kruse
- Department of Functional Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Physiology and Sport Medicine, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), University of Liège, 4000 Liège 1 (Sart Tilman), Belgium;
| | - Benoit Renaud
- Department of Functional Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), University of Liège, 4000 Liège 1 (Sart Tilman), Belgium; (B.R.); (P.G.)
| | | | - Marie-Catherine Bouquieaux
- Equine Pole, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lieège, 4000 Liège 1 (Sart Tilman), Belgium; (D.-M.V.); (M.-C.B.)
| | | | - Pascal Gustin
- Department of Functional Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), University of Liège, 4000 Liège 1 (Sart Tilman), Belgium; (B.R.); (P.G.)
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