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Badihi G, Bodden K, Zuberbühler K, Samuni L, Hobaiter C. Flexibility in the social structure of male chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Budongo Forest, Uganda. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:220904. [PMID: 36177197 PMCID: PMC9515636 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Individuals of social species experience competitive costs and social benefits of group living. Substantial flexibility in humans' social structure and the combination of different types of social structure with fission-fusion dynamics allow us to live in extremely large groups-overcoming some of the costs of group living while capitalizing on the benefits. Non-human species also show a range of social strategies to deal with this trade-off. Chimpanzees are an archetypical fission-fusion species, using dynamic changes in day-to-day association to moderate the costs of within-group competition. Using 4 years of association data from two neighbouring communities of East African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii), we describe an unexplored level of flexibility in chimpanzee social structure. We show that males from the larger Waibira community (N = 24-31) exhibited additional structural levels of semi-stable core-periphery society, while males from the smaller Sonso community (N = 10-13) did not. This novel core-periphery pattern adds to previous results describing alternative modular social structure in other large communities of chimpanzees. Our data support the hypothesis that chimpanzees can incorporate a range of strategies in addition to fission-fusion to overcome costs of social living, and that their social structures may be closer to that of modern humans than previously described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gal Badihi
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, South Street, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
| | - Kelsey Bodden
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, South Street, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
| | - Klaus Zuberbühler
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, South Street, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
- School of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Budongo Conservation Field Station, Masindi, Uganda
| | - Liran Samuni
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, South Street, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Catherine Hobaiter
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, South Street, St Andrews KY16 9JP, UK
- Budongo Conservation Field Station, Masindi, Uganda
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2
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Teichroeb JA, Adams FV, Khwaja A, Stapelfeldt K, Stead SM. Tight quarters: ranging and feeding competition in a Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii multilevel society occupying a fragmented habitat. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03166-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Rosenbaum S, Eckardt W, Stoinski TS, Umuhoza R, Kuzawa CW, Santymire RM. Group structure, but not dominance rank, predicts fecal androgen metabolite concentrations of wild male mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). Am J Primatol 2021; 83:e23295. [PMID: 34223661 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Androgens are important mediators of male-male competition in many primate species. Male gorillas' morphology is consistent with a reproductive strategy that relies heavily on androgen-dependent traits (e.g., extreme size and muscle mass). Despite possessing characteristics typical of species with an exclusively single-male group structure, multimale groups with strong dominance hierarchies are common in mountain gorillas. Theory predicts that androgens should mediate their dominance hierarchies, and potentially vary with the type of group males live in. We validated the use of a testosterone enzyme immunoassay (T-EIA R156/7, CJ Munro, UC-Davis) for use with mountain gorilla fecal material by (1) examining individual-level androgen responses to competitive events, and (2) isolating assay-specific hormone metabolites via high-performance liquid chromatography. Males had large (2.6- and 6.5-fold), temporary increases in fecal androgen metabolite (FAM) after competitive events, and most captured metabolites were testosterone or 5α-dihydrotestosterone-like androgens. We then examined the relationship between males' dominance ranks, group type, and FAM concentrations. Males in single-male groups had higher FAM concentrations than males in multimale groups, and a small pool of samples from solitary males suggested they may have lower FAM than group-living peers. However, data from two different time periods (n = 1610 samples) indicated there was no clear relationship between rank and FAM concentrations, confirming results from the larger of two prior studies that measured urinary androgens. These findings highlight the need for additional research to clarify the surprising lack of a dominance hierarchy/androgen relationship in mountain gorillas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacy Rosenbaum
- Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.,Davee Center for Epidemiology and Endocrinology, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Winnie Eckardt
- Karisoke Research Center, Musanze, Rwanda.,The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | | | | | - Christopher W Kuzawa
- Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA.,Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
| | - Rachel M Santymire
- Davee Center for Epidemiology and Endocrinology, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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High levels of infant handling by adult males in Rwenzori Angolan colobus (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) compared to two closely related species, C. guereza and C. vellerosus. Primates 2021; 62:637-646. [PMID: 33856586 DOI: 10.1007/s10329-021-00907-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Infant handling (holding or carrying) by adult males is rare in mammals; however, high levels have been reported in some primates. Though infant handling is a costly behaviour, there are many benefits that male handlers can accrue. Infant handling by males is most conspicuous in platyrrhines and tends to be uncommon in catarrhines. In the latter species, research on male-infant interactions has focused on low-cost behaviours, such as proximity and grooming. However, to better understand the evolution of infant handling by males, more data on its occurrence across the Primate order are essential, even in species where it is relatively uncommon. We compare the occurrence of infant handling by males in three closely related species of catarrhine: Colobus vellerosus, C. guereza, and C. angolensis ruwenzorii. We collected focal animal samples on infants to quantify infant handling rates and durations, and found that adult male C. a. ruwenzorii handled infants much more frequently and for much longer than males in the other two species. We discuss how C. a. ruwenzorii's unique social organization may explain high levels of infant handling by adult males in this species. More long-term and detailed comparisons of infant handling across species and populations will shed light on how sociality has shaped the evolution of this behaviour in the Primate order.
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Adams FV, Arseneau‐Robar TJM, Bonnell TR, Stead SM, Teichroeb JA. Temporal patterns in the social network of core units in Rwenzori Angolan colobus monkeys: Effects of food availability and interunit dispersal. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:3251-3263. [PMID: 33841781 PMCID: PMC8019045 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Multi-level societies are complex, nested social systems where basic social groups (i.e., core units) associate in a hierarchical manner, allowing animals to adjust their group sizes in response to variables such as food availability, predation, or conspecific threat. These pressures fluctuate over time and examining the extent to which this variation affects the clustering of core units into different tiers may be instrumental in understanding the evolution of multi-level societies.The goal of our study was to determine the degree of temporal variability in interunit associations in a multi-level society of Rwenzori Angolan colobus monkey (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii), and to determine the social and ecological factors that underlie association patterns. The C. a. ruwenzorii multi-level society consists of at least three tiers, with core units clustering into clans that share a home range in a band tier.We performed social network analyses on 21 months of association data from 13 core units (totaling 139 identifiable individuals) at Lake Nabugabo, Uganda. We described the patterns of variation in core-unit associations over time and investigated how changes in rainfall, food availability, and interunit dispersals were correlated with these associations over the short-term (month to month) and long-term (year to year).Although clans were relatively stable, larger-scale changes in association patterns included the formation of an all-male unit and the transfer of one core unit between clans (within the band tier). Seasonally, core units associated significantly more when fruit, their preferred food source, was abundant (i.e., social networks were denser and more clustered) and there was no direct effect of rainfall seasonality or young leaf availability. Male dispersals also occurred more during periods of high fruit availability, suggesting that greater band cohesion allowed males to prospect and transfer between core units. Once males transferred, their previous and new units associated significantly more with one another than with other core units for 1-2 months postdispersal. The dispersal of five males from one core unit to another in a different clan co-occurred with this core unit switching its clan affiliation.By examining temporal shifts in social network structure among core units, this study shows the interconnected roles that food availability and dispersal have in shaping the C. a. ruwenzorii multi-level social system. Our findings highlight how ecological conditions can drive association patterns, impact interunit relationships, and influence social organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances V. Adams
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Toronto ScarboroughTorontoONCanada
| | | | - Tyler R. Bonnell
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of LethbridgeLethbridgeABCanada
| | - Samantha M. Stead
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Toronto ScarboroughTorontoONCanada
| | - Julie A. Teichroeb
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Toronto ScarboroughTorontoONCanada
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Maeda T, Ochi S, Ringhofer M, Sosa S, Sueur C, Hirata S, Yamamoto S. Aerial drone observations identified a multilevel society in feral horses. Sci Rep 2021; 11:71. [PMID: 33420148 PMCID: PMC7794487 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79790-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of non-human multilevel societies can give us insights into how group-level relationships function and are maintained in a social system, but their mechanisms are still poorly understood. The aim of this study was to apply spatial association data obtained from drones to verify the presence of a multilevel structure in a feral horse society. We took aerial photos of individuals that appeared in pre-fixed areas and collected positional data. The threshold distance of the association was defined based on the distribution pattern of the inter-individual distance. The association rates of individuals showed bimodality, suggesting the presence of small social organizations or "units". Inter-unit distances were significantly smaller than those in randomly replaced data, which showed that units associate to form a higher-level social organization or "herd". Moreover, this herd had a structure where large mixed-sex units were more likely to occupy the center than small mixed-sex units and all-male-units, which were instead on the periphery. These three pieces of evidence regarding the existence of units, unit association, and stable positioning among units strongly indicated a multilevel structure in horse society. The present study contributes to understanding the functions and mechanisms of multilevel societies through comparisons with other social indices and models as well as cross-species comparisons in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamao Maeda
- Wildlife Research Centre, Kyoto University, 2-24 Tanaka-Sekiden-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan.
| | - Sakiho Ochi
- Wildlife Research Centre, Kyoto University, 2-24 Tanaka-Sekiden-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Monamie Ringhofer
- Institute for Advanced Study, Kyoto University, Yoshida Ushinomiya-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Sebastian Sosa
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC, UMR 7178, Strasbourg, France
| | - Cédric Sueur
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC, UMR 7178, Strasbourg, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
| | - Satoshi Hirata
- Wildlife Research Centre, Kyoto University, 2-24 Tanaka-Sekiden-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shinya Yamamoto
- Institute for Advanced Study, Kyoto University, Yoshida Ushinomiya-cho, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan.
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Arseneau-Robar TJM, Changasi AH, Turner E, Teichroeb JA. Diet and Activity Budget in Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii at Nabugabo, Uganda: Are They Energy Maximizers? Folia Primatol (Basel) 2020; 92:35-48. [PMID: 33130677 PMCID: PMC7949237 DOI: 10.1159/000511046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Colobine monkeys are specialized folivores that use foregut fermentation to digest leaves. The slow process of fermentation forces them to spend a lot of time resting and to minimize their energy expenditure to subsist on a lower-quality diet. METHODS We recorded the diet and activity budget of Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii, which form a three-tiered multi-level society, at Lake Nabugabo, Uganda, over 12 months using scan sampling on adults and subadults, to determine whether they utilize the energy minimization strategy typical of colobines. RESULTS We found that the annual diet was primarily comprised of high-quality food resources (young leaves 65% and fruit 31%), and fruits were the only plant part the monkeysselected when available. Both the fruits and young leaves of some species were preferred food items in some months, and mature leaf consumption correlated negatively with preferred food availability. Mature leaves appear to be a fallback food for this population but are rarely relied upon (3%). The C. a. ruwenzoriiat Nabugabo spent less time resting (40%) and more time moving (25%) than is typical for other species of black-and-white colobus. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION The high-quality diet of this population appears to allow them to utilize an energy maximization strategy. Their reliance on food items that tend to be clumped in space and time likely explains the frequent fission-fusion behaviour that we observe between core units. Our findings demonstrate that the foraging strategies of colobines may be more flexible than was previously thought and illustrate how food availability and distribution can impact primate social organization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amtul H Changasi
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Evan Turner
- Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Julie A Teichroeb
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,
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Morrison RE, Hirwa JP, Mucyo JPS, Stoinski TS, Vecellio V, Eckardt W. Inter‐group relationships influence territorial defence in mountain gorillas. J Anim Ecol 2020; 89:2852-2862. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robin E. Morrison
- The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund Musanze Rwanda
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour University of Exeter Exeter UK
| | | | | | - Tara S. Stoinski
- The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund Musanze Rwanda
- The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund Atlanta GA USA
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Miller A, Uddin S, Judge DS, Kaplin BA, Ndayishimiye D, Uwingeneye G, Grueter CC. Spatiotemporal association patterns in a supergroup of Rwenzori black-and-white colobus (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) are consistent with a multilevel society. Am J Primatol 2020; 82:e23127. [PMID: 32249977 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Primates display broad diversity in their social organization. The social groups of a few primate species are organized in a multilevel fashion, with large groups composed of multiple, core one-male units (OMUs). A characteristic of multilevel societies is that the higher levels can include hundreds of individuals. The Rwenzori black-and-white colobus (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) in the montane forests of Rwanda form supergroups and have been suspected to exhibit multilevel social organization. Here we present the first data on the "anatomy" of a supergroup numbering 500+ individuals. We identified subgroups within the supergroup based on progression data, extracting the social network structure from the time-stamped spatiotemporal distribution of passing individuals identified to age-sex class, and selecting an optimal time window for each network using the two-step approach developed by Uddin, Choudhury, Farhad, and Rahman (2017). We detail the existence of core units-multi-male units (MMUs) with a mean of 1.7 adult males and 3.1 adult females, as well as OMUs, all-female units and bachelor units composed of adult and sub-adult males. More than two-thirds of units are MMUs. These grouping patterns conform to a multilevel society with predominantly multi-male core units, a social system that has recently also been described for a population of the same taxon in Uganda. Individual identification will be required to corroborate these interpretations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Miller
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Shahadat Uddin
- Complex Systems Research Group, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Debra S Judge
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Beth A Kaplin
- Center of Excellence in Biodiversity & Natural Resource Management, University of Rwanda, Huye, Rwanda.,School for the Environment, University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Dieudonne Ndayishimiye
- Center of Excellence in Biodiversity & Natural Resource Management, University of Rwanda, Huye, Rwanda
| | - Grace Uwingeneye
- Center of Excellence in Biodiversity & Natural Resource Management, University of Rwanda, Huye, Rwanda
| | - Cyril C Grueter
- School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.,UWA Africa Research & Engagement Centre, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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Teichroeb JA, Stead SM, Edwards PD, Landry F, Palme R, Boonstra R. Anogenital distance as a measure of male competitive ability in Rwenzori Angolan colobus. Am J Primatol 2020; 82:e23111. [PMID: 32083334 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Anogenital distance (AGD) is positively correlated to fetal androgen exposure and developmental masculinization in mammals. Independent of overall body size, AGD shows a strong positive correlation with male fertility and in rodents, AGD is a good indicator of male competitive ability and is associated with female choice. We hypothesized that AGD will also predict male competitive ability in non-human primates. To test this, we measured AGD noninvasively with a parallel laser in a wild population of Angolan colobus monkeys (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) in Uganda and correlated to it to their social structure. C. angolensis ruwenzorii form a multilevel society with both one-male/multifemale units (OMUs) and multimale/multifemale units (MMUs). We compared AGD in males from five OMUs and six MMUs and related it to their fecal androgen metabolite concentrations, dominance rank and body size, and to the number of females in their unit. Males in OMUs had greater access to females, so were predicted to have longer AGDs, but this was not found. AGD also did not correlate overall with mean fecal androgen metabolites in MMUs. However, AGD was correlated with dominance rank in MMUs, demonstrating that higher-ranking males in these multimale units had longer AGDs. Body size did not show the same relationship with dominance rank, suggesting that male rank was not just a reflection of absolute male size. Our findings indicate that AGD predicts male competitive ability in this species and that it may be a useful correlate throughout the non-human primates. These results also support the idea that prenatal androgen exposure increases the likelihood of the expression of behaviors that maintain high dominance rank.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Teichroeb
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Samantha M Stead
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Phoebe D Edwards
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Florence Landry
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rupert Palme
- Unit of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Experimental Endocrinology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudy Boonstra
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Microhabitat Use in Angolan Colobus Monkeys (Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii) at Nabugabo, Uganda Demonstrates Intraspecific Variability. INT J PRIMATOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-020-00132-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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