1
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Goyal P, van Leeuwen JL, Muijres FT. Bumblebees compensate for the adverse effects of sidewind during visually guided landings. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb245432. [PMID: 38506223 PMCID: PMC11112349 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.245432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Flying animals often encounter winds during visually guided landings. However, how winds affect their flight control strategy during landing is unknown. Here, we investigated how sidewind affects the landing performance and sensorimotor control of foraging bumblebees (Bombus terrestris). We trained bumblebees to forage in a wind tunnel, and used high-speed stereoscopic videography to record 19,421 landing maneuvers in six sidewind speeds (0 to 3.4 m s-1), which correspond to winds encountered in nature. Bumblebees landed less often in higher windspeeds, but the landing durations from free flight were not increased by wind. By testing how bumblebees adjusted their landing control to compensate for adverse effects of sidewind on landing, we showed that the landing strategy in sidewind resembled that in still air, but with important adaptations. Bumblebees landing in a sidewind tended to drift downwind, which they controlled for by performing more hover maneuvers. Surprisingly, the increased hover prevalence did not increase the duration of free-flight landing maneuvers, as these bumblebees flew faster towards the landing platform outside the hover phases. Hence, by alternating these two flight modes along their flight path, free-flying bumblebees negated the adverse effects of high windspeeds on landing duration. Using control theory, we hypothesize that bumblebees achieve this by integrating a combination of direct aerodynamic feedback and a wind-mediated mechanosensory feedback control, with their vision-based sensorimotor control loop. The revealed landing strategy may be commonly used by insects landing in windy conditions, and may inspire the development of landing control strategies onboard autonomously flying robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pulkit Goyal
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Johan L. van Leeuwen
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Florian T. Muijres
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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2
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Singh S, Garratt M, Srinivasan M, Ravi S. Analysis of collision avoidance in honeybee flight. J R Soc Interface 2024; 21:20230601. [PMID: 38531412 PMCID: PMC10973882 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Insects are excellent at flying in dense vegetation and navigating through other complex spatial environments. This study investigates the strategies used by honeybees (Apis mellifera) to avoid collisions with an obstacle encountered frontally during flight. Bees were trained to fly through a tunnel that contained a solitary vertically oriented cylindrical obstacle placed along the midline. Flight trajectories of bees were recorded for six conditions in which the diameter of the obstructing cylinder was systematically varied from 25 mm to 160 mm. Analysis of salient events during the bees' flight, such as the deceleration before the obstacle, and the initiation of the deviation in flight path to avoid collisions, revealed a strategy for obstacle avoidance that is based on the relative retinal expansion velocity generated by the obstacle when the bee is on a collision course. We find that a quantitative model, featuring a controller that extracts specific visual cues from the frontal visual field, provides an accurate characterization of the geometry and the dynamics of the manoeuvres adopted by honeybees to avoid collisions. This study paves the way for the design of unmanned aerial systems, by identifying the visual cues that are used by honeybees for performing robust obstacle avoidance flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreyansh Singh
- School of Engineering and Technology, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia
| | - Matthew Garratt
- School of Engineering and Technology, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia
| | - Mandyam Srinivasan
- Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Sridhar Ravi
- School of Engineering and Technology, University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia
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3
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Li Q, Li H, Shen H, Yu Y, He H, Feng X, Sun Y, Mao Z, Chen G, Tian Z, Shen L, Zheng X, Ji A. An Aerial-Wall Robotic Insect That Can Land, Climb, and Take Off from Vertical Surfaces. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2023; 6:0144. [PMID: 37228637 PMCID: PMC10204747 DOI: 10.34133/research.0144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Insects that can perform flapping-wing flight, climb on a wall, and switch smoothly between the 2 locomotion regimes provide us with excellent biomimetic models. However, very few biomimetic robots can perform complex locomotion tasks that combine the 2 abilities of climbing and flying. Here, we describe an aerial-wall amphibious robot that is self-contained for flying and climbing, and that can seamlessly move between the air and wall. It adopts a flapping/rotor hybrid power layout, which realizes not only efficient and controllable flight in the air but also attachment to, and climbing on, the vertical wall through a synergistic combination of the aerodynamic negative pressure adsorption of the rotor power and a climbing mechanism with bionic adhesion performance. On the basis of the attachment mechanism of insect foot pads, the prepared biomimetic adhesive materials of the robot can be applied to various types of wall surfaces to achieve stable climbing. The longitudinal axis layout design of the rotor dynamics and control strategy realize a unique cross-domain movement during the flying-climbing transition, which has important implications in understanding the takeoff and landing of insects. Moreover, it enables the robot to cross the air-wall boundary in 0.4 s (landing), and cross the wall-air boundary in 0.7 s (taking off). The aerial-wall amphibious robot expands the working space of traditional flying and climbing robots, which can pave the way for future robots that can perform autonomous visual monitoring, human search and rescue, and tracking tasks in complex air-wall environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Li
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Haoze Li
- College of Aerospace Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Huan Shen
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Yangguang Yu
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Haoran He
- College of Aerospace Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Xincheng Feng
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Yi Sun
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhiyuan Mao
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Guangming Chen
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Zongjun Tian
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Lida Shen
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiangming Zheng
- College of Aerospace Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
| | - Aihong Ji
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Mechanics and Control for Aerospace Structures,
Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
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4
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Abstract
Insects have evolved sophisticated reflexes to right themselves in mid-air. Their recovery mechanisms involve complex interactions among the physical senses, muscles, body, and wings, and they must obey the laws of flight. We sought to understand the key mechanisms involved in dragonfly righting reflexes and to develop physics-based models for understanding the control strategies of flight maneuvers. Using kinematic analyses, physical modeling, and three-dimensional flight simulations, we found that a dragonfly uses left-right wing pitch asymmetry to roll its body 180 degrees to recover from falling upside down in ~200 milliseconds. Experiments of dragonflies with blocked vision further revealed that this rolling maneuver is initiated by their ocelli and compound eyes. These results suggest a pathway from the dragonfly's visual system to the muscles regulating wing pitch that underly the recovery. The methods developed here offer quantitative tools for inferring insects' internal actions from their acrobatics, and are applicable to a broad class of natural and robotic flying systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Jane Wang
- Department of Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA.,Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA.,Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - James Melfi
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Anthony Leonardo
- Janelia Farm Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA 20147, USA
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5
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Yuan J, Wang Z, Song Y, Dai Z. Peking geckos (Gekko swinhonis) traversing upward steps: the effect of step height on the transition from horizontal to vertical locomotion. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2022; 208:421-433. [PMID: 35362821 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-022-01548-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The ability to transition between surfaces (e.g., from the ground to vertical barriers, such as walls, tree trunks, or rock surfaces) is important for the Peking gecko's (Gekko swinhonis Günther 1864) survival. However, quantitative research on gecko's kinematic performance and the effect of obstacle height during transitional locomotion remains scarce. In this study, the transitional locomotion of geckos facing different obstacle heights was assessed. Remarkably, geckos demonstrated a bimodal locomotion ability, as they could climb and jump. Climbing was more common on smaller obstacles and took longer than jumping. The jumping type depended on the obstacle height: when geckos could jump onto the obstacle, the vertical velocity increased with obstacle height; however, geckos jumped from a closer position when the obstacle height exceeded this range and would get attached to the vertical surface. A stability analysis of vertical surface landing using a collision model revealed that geckos can reduce their restraint impulse by increasing the landing angle through limb extension close to the body, consequently dissipating collision energy and reducing their horizontal and vertical velocities. The findings of this study reveal the adaptations evolved by geckos to move in their environments and may have applicability in the robotics field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwei Yuan
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing, 210016, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhouyi Wang
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing, 210016, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yi Song
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing, 210016, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhendong Dai
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 29 Yudao Street, Nanjing, 210016, People's Republic of China
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6
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Ravi S, Siesenop T, Bertrand OJ, Li L, Doussot C, Fisher A, Warren WH, Egelhaaf M. Bumblebees display characteristics of active vision during robust obstacle avoidance flight. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:274096. [PMID: 35067721 PMCID: PMC8920035 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Insects are remarkable flyers and capable of navigating through highly cluttered environments. We tracked the head and thorax of bumblebees freely flying in a tunnel containing vertically oriented obstacles to uncover the sensorimotor strategies used for obstacle detection and collision avoidance. Bumblebees presented all the characteristics of active vision during flight by stabilizing their head relative to the external environment and maintained close alignment between their gaze and flightpath. Head stabilization increased motion contrast of nearby features against the background to enable obstacle detection. As bees approached obstacles, they appeared to modulate avoidance responses based on the relative retinal expansion velocity (RREV) of obstacles and their maximum evasion acceleration was linearly related to RREVmax. Finally, bees prevented collisions through rapid roll manoeuvres implemented by their thorax. Overall, the combination of visuo-motor strategies of bumblebees highlights elegant solutions developed by insects for visually guided flight through cluttered environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sridhar Ravi
- Department of Neurobiology and Center of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany,School of Engineering and Information Technology, University of New South Wales, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia,Author for correspondence ()
| | - Tim Siesenop
- Department of Neurobiology and Center of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Olivier J. Bertrand
- Department of Neurobiology and Center of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Liang Li
- Department of Collective Behavior, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany,Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany,Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Charlotte Doussot
- Department of Neurobiology and Center of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Alex Fisher
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - William H. Warren
- Department of Cognitive, Linguistic & Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Martin Egelhaaf
- Department of Neurobiology and Center of Excellence Cognitive Interaction Technology (CITEC), Bielefeld University, 33619 Bielefeld, Germany
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7
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Berger Dauxère A, Serres JR, Montagne G. Ecological Entomology: How Is Gibson's Framework Useful? INSECTS 2021; 12:1075. [PMID: 34940163 PMCID: PMC8703479 DOI: 10.3390/insects12121075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
To date, numerous studies have demonstrated the fundamental role played by optic flow in the control of goal-directed displacement tasks in insects. Optic flow was first introduced by Gibson as part of their ecological approach to perception and action. While this theoretical approach (as a whole) has been demonstrated to be particularly suitable for the study of goal-directed displacements in humans, its usefulness in carrying out entomological field studies remains to be established. In this review we would like to demonstrate that the ecological approach to perception and action could be relevant for the entomologist community in their future investigations. This approach could provide a conceptual and methodological framework for the community in order to: (i) take a critical look at the research carried out to date, (ii) develop rigorous and innovative experimental protocols, and (iii) define scientific issues that push the boundaries of the current scientific field. After a concise literature review about the perceptual control of displacement in insects, we will present the framework proposed by Gibson and suggest its added value for carrying out research in the field of behavioral ecology in insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimie Berger Dauxère
- The Institute of Movement Sciences, Aix Marseille University, CNRS, ISM, CEDEX 07, 13284 Marseille, France; (J.R.S.); (G.M.)
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8
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Huang Z, Li S, Jiang J, Wu Y, Yang L, Zhang Y. Biomimetic Flip-and-Flap Strategy of Flying Objects for Perching on Inclined Surfaces. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2021. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2021.3070254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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9
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Goyal P, Cribellier A, de Croon GC, Lankheet MJ, van Leeuwen JL, Pieters RP, Muijres FT. Bumblebees land rapidly and robustly using a sophisticated modular flight control strategy. iScience 2021; 24:102407. [PMID: 33997689 PMCID: PMC8099750 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
When approaching a landing surface, many flying animals use visual feedback to control their landing. Here, we studied how foraging bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) use radial optic expansion cues to control in-flight decelerations during landing. By analyzing the flight dynamics of 4,672 landing maneuvers, we showed that landing bumblebees exhibit a series of deceleration bouts, unlike landing honeybees that continuously decelerate. During each bout, the bumblebee keeps its relative rate of optical expansion constant, and from one bout to the next, the bumblebee tends to shift to a higher, constant relative rate of expansion. This modular landing strategy is relatively fast compared to the strategy described for honeybees and results in approach dynamics that is strikingly similar to that of pigeons and hummingbirds. The here discovered modular landing strategy of bumblebees helps explaining why these important pollinators in nature and horticulture can forage effectively in challenging conditions; moreover, it has potential for bio-inspired landing strategies in flying robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pulkit Goyal
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Antoine Cribellier
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Guido C.H.E. de Croon
- Control and Simulation, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2629 HS Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Martin J. Lankheet
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Johan L. van Leeuwen
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Remco P.M. Pieters
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Florian T. Muijres
- Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WD Wageningen, the Netherlands
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10
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Kaushik PK, Olsson SB. Using virtual worlds to understand insect navigation for bio-inspired systems. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2020; 42:97-104. [PMID: 33010476 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2020.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Insects perform a wide array of intricate behaviors over large spatial and temporal scales in complex natural environments. A mechanistic understanding of insect cognition has direct implications on how brains integrate multimodal information and can inspire bio-based solutions for autonomous robots. Virtual Reality (VR) offers an opportunity assess insect neuroethology while presenting complex, yet controlled, stimuli. Here, we discuss the use of insects as inspiration for artificial systems, recent advances in different VR technologies, current knowledge gaps, and the potential for application of insect VR research to bio-inspired robots. Finally, we advocate the need to diversify our model organisms, behavioral paradigms, and embrace the complexity of the natural world. This will help us to uncover the proximate and ultimate basis of brain and behavior and extract general principles for common challenging problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavan Kumar Kaushik
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bengaluru, 560064, India.
| | - Shannon B Olsson
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bengaluru, 560064, India.
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11
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Smith NM, Balsalobre JB, Doshi M, Willenberg BJ, Dickerson AK. Landing mosquitoes bounce when engaging a substrate. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15744. [PMID: 32978447 PMCID: PMC7519040 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72462-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In this experimental study we film the landings of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes to characterize landing behaviors and kinetics, limitations, and the passive physiological mechanics they employ to land on a vertical surface. A typical landing involves 1-2 bounces, reducing inbound momentum by more than half before the mosquito firmly attaches to a surface. Mosquitoes initially approach landing surfaces at 0.1-0.6 m/s, decelerating to zero velocity in approximately 5 ms at accelerations as high as 5.5 gravities. Unlike Dipteran relatives, mosquitoes do not visibly prepare for landing with leg adjustments or body pitching. Instead mosquitoes rely on damping by deforming two forelimbs and buckling of the proboscis, which also serves to distribute the impact force, lessening the potential of detection by a mammalian host. The rebound response of a landing mosquito is well-characterized by a passive mass-spring-damper model which permits the calculation of force across impact velocity. The landing force of the average mosquito in our study is approximately 40 [Formula: see text]N corresponding to an impact velocity of 0.24 m/s. The substrate contact velocity which produces a force perceptible to humans, 0.42 m/s, is above 85% of experimentally observed landing speeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas M Smith
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
| | - Jasmine B Balsalobre
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
| | - Mona Doshi
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
| | - Bradley J Willenberg
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
| | - Andrew K Dickerson
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA.
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12
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Tichit P, Alves-Dos-Santos I, Dacke M, Baird E. Accelerated landings in stingless bees are triggered by visual threshold cues. Biol Lett 2020; 16:20200437. [PMID: 32842893 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Most flying animals rely primarily on visual cues to coordinate and control their trajectory when landing. Studies of visually guided landing typically involve animals that decrease their speed before touchdown. Here, we investigate the control strategy of the stingless bee Scaptotrigona depilis, which instead accelerates when landing on its narrow hive entrance. By presenting artificial targets that resemble the entrance at different locations on the hive, we show that these accelerated landings are triggered by visual cues. We also found that S. depilis initiated landing and extended their legs when the angular size of the target reached a given threshold. Regardless of target size, the magnitude of acceleration was the same and the bees aimed for the same relative position on the target suggesting that S. depilis use a computationally simple but elegant 'stereotyped' landing strategy that requires few visual cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Tichit
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund 223 62, Sweden
| | | | - Marie Dacke
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund 223 62, Sweden
| | - Emily Baird
- Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund 223 62, Sweden.,Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm 106 91, Sweden
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13
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A single touch can provide sufficient mechanical stimulation to trigger Venus flytrap closure. PLoS Biol 2020; 18:e3000740. [PMID: 32649659 PMCID: PMC7351144 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The carnivorous Venus flytrap catches prey by an ingenious snapping mechanism. Based on work over nearly 200 years, it has become generally accepted that two touches of the trap’s sensory hairs within 30 s, each one generating an action potential, are required to trigger closure of the trap. We developed an electromechanical model, which, however, suggests that under certain circumstances one touch is sufficient to generate two action potentials. Using a force-sensing microrobotic system, we precisely quantified the sensory-hair deflection parameters necessary to trigger trap closure and correlated them with the elicited action potentials in vivo. Our results confirm the model’s predictions, suggesting that the Venus flytrap may be adapted to a wider range of prey movements than previously assumed. It is generally accepted that two touches of the Venus flytrap’s sensory hairs within 30 seconds are required to trigger closure of the trap. Here, however, quantification of the plant’s sensory hair deflection parameters reveals that one stimulus is sufficient.
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14
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Jankauski MA. Measuring the frequency response of the honeybee thorax. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2020; 15:046002. [PMID: 32209745 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ab835b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Insects with asynchronous flight muscles are believed to flap at the effective fundamental frequency of their thorax-wing system. Flapping in this manner leverages the natural elasticity of the thorax to reduce the energetic requirements of flight. However, to the best of our knowledge, the fundamental frequency of the insect wing-muscle-thorax system has not been measured. Here, we measure the linear frequency response function (FRF) of honeybee Apis mellifera thoraxes about their equilibrium state in order to determine their fundamental frequencies. FRFs relate the input force to output acceleration at the insect tergum and are acquired via a mechanical vibration shaker assembly. When compressed 50 μm, the thorax fundamental frequency averaged across all subjects was about 50% higher than reported wingbeat frequencies. We suspect that the measured fundamental frequencies are higher in the experiment than during flight due to boundary conditions and posthumous muscle stiffening. Next, we compress the thorax between 100-300 μm in 50 μm intervals to assess the sensitivity of the fundamental frequency to geometric modifications. For all specimens considered, the thorax fundamental frequency increased nearly monotonically with respect to level of compression. This implies that the thorax behaves as a nonlinear hardening spring when subject to large displacements, which we confirmed via static force-displacement testing. While there is little evidence that insects utilize this non-linearity during flight, the hardening characteristic may be emulated by small resonant-type flapping wing micro air vehicles to increase flapping frequency bandwidth. Overall, methods established through this work provide a foundation for further dynamical studies on insect thoraxes moving forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Jankauski
- Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Montana State University, Culbertson Hall, 100, Bozeman, MT 59717, United States of America
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15
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Souza-Junior JBF, Teixeira-Souza VHDS, Oliveira-Souza A, de Oliveira PF, de Queiroz JPAF, Hrncir M. Increasing thermal stress with flight distance in stingless bees (Melipona subnitida) in the Brazilian tropical dry forest: Implications for constraint on foraging range. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 123:104056. [PMID: 32387237 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2020.104056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The thoracic temperature (TTX) of foraging bees usually exceeds ambient air temperatures (TAIR) by several degrees. In hot tropical climate zones, therefore, individuals may reach body temperatures close to their critical thermal maxima, which might constrain their activity. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that thermal stress increases with flight distance in nectar foragers of M. subnitida, a stingless bee species native to the hottest regions of the Brazilian tropical dry forest. Using infrared thermography, we recorded the body surface temperature of individuals foraging at distances of 15, 50, and 100 m. Closest to the nests, foragers stabilized TTX at 40 °C when collecting sugar solution at TAIR > 30 °C. The simultaneous decrease of the temperature excess ratio of head and abdomen suggests evaporative cooling at these body parts. With increasing foraging distance, foragers increased heat dissipation to the head and abdomen. Thus, despite more intensive heating of the thorax due to faster and longer flights, the bees maintained similar TTX as foragers at close feeding sites. However, at TAIR > 30 °C, bees could no longer compensate the elevated heat gain at the head (50 m) and abdomen (50, 100 m), which caused an increasing temperature excess in these body parts. Thus, foragers of M. subnitida suffer overheating of the head and abdomen instead of the thorax when foraging in high temperatures at far feeding sites. Consequently, to avoid heat stress in the Brazilian tropical dry forest, the bees should forage close to the nest.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Batista Freire Souza-Junior
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Avenida Francisco Mota, 575, Presidente Costa e Silva, Mossoró, RN 59625-900, Brazil.
| | - Vinício Heidy da Silva Teixeira-Souza
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Avenida Francisco Mota, 575, Presidente Costa e Silva, Mossoró, RN 59625-900, Brazil; Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Avenida Mister Hull, s/n, Campus do Pici, Fortaleza, CE 60440-900, Brazil.
| | - Aline Oliveira-Souza
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Avenida Francisco Mota, 575, Presidente Costa e Silva, Mossoró, RN 59625-900, Brazil.
| | - Paloma Fernandes de Oliveira
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Avenida Francisco Mota, 575, Presidente Costa e Silva, Mossoró, RN 59625-900, Brazil; Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Avenida Mister Hull, s/n, Campus do Pici, Fortaleza, CE 60440-900, Brazil.
| | - João Paulo Araújo Fernandes de Queiroz
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Roraima, BR 174 - Km 12, Distrito de Monte Cristo, Boa Vista, RR 69301-970, Brazil; Departamento de Zootecnia, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Avenida Mister Hull, s/n, Campus do Pici, Fortaleza, CE 60356-000, Brazil.
| | - Michael Hrncir
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Avenida Francisco Mota, 575, Presidente Costa e Silva, Mossoró, RN 59625-900, Brazil; Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Matão, trav. 14, 321, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP 05508-090, Brazil.
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Liu P, Sane SP, Mongeau JM, Zhao J, Cheng B. Flies land upside down on a ceiling using rapid visually mediated rotational maneuvers. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2019; 5:eaax1877. [PMID: 31681844 PMCID: PMC6810462 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aax1877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Flies and other insects routinely land upside down on a ceiling. These inverted landing maneuvers are among the most remarkable aerobatic feats, yet the full range of these behaviors and their underlying sensorimotor processes remain largely unknown. Here, we report that successful inverted landing in flies involves a serial sequence of well-coordinated behavioral modules, consisting of an initial upward acceleration followed by rapid body rotation and leg extension, before terminating with a leg-assisted body swing pivoted around legs firmly attached to the ceiling. Statistical analyses suggest that rotational maneuvers are triggered when flies' relative retinal expansion velocity reaches a threshold. Also, flies exhibit highly variable pitch and roll rates, which are strongly correlated to and likely mediated by multiple sensory cues. When flying with higher forward or lower upward velocities, flies decrease the pitch rate but increase the degree of leg-assisted swing, thereby leveraging the transfer of body linear momentum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Sanjay P. Sane
- National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Jean-Michel Mongeau
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Jianguo Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Bo Cheng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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