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Barron SL, Wyatt O, O'Connor A, Mansfield D, Suzanne Cohen E, Witkos TM, Strickson S, Owens RM. Modelling bronchial epithelial-fibroblast cross-talk in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) using a human-derived in vitro air liquid interface (ALI) culture. Sci Rep 2024; 14:240. [PMID: 38168149 PMCID: PMC10761879 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-50618-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) is a devastating form of respiratory disease with a life expectancy of 3-4 years. Inflammation, epithelial injury and myofibroblast proliferation have been implicated in disease initiation and, recently, epithelial-fibroblastic crosstalk has been identified as a central driver. However, the ability to interrogate this crosstalk is limited due to the absence of in vitro models that mimic physiological conditions. To investigate IPF dysregulated cross-talk, primary normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells and primary normal human lung fibroblasts (NHLF) or diseased human lung fibroblasts (DHLF) from IPF patients, were co-cultured in direct contact at the air-liquid interface (ALI). Intercellular crosstalk was assessed by comparing cellular phenotypes of co-cultures to respective monocultures, through optical, biomolecular and electrical methods. A co-culture-dependent decrease in epithelium thickness, basal cell mRNA (P63, KRT5) and an increase in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was observed. This effect was significantly enhanced in DHLF co-cultures and lead to the induction of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and increased mRNA expression of TGFβ-2, ZO-1 and DN12. When stimulated with exogenous TGFβ, NHBE and NHLF monocultures showed a significant upregulation of EMT (COL1A1, FN1, VIM, ASMA) and senescence (P21) markers, respectively. In contrast, direct NHLF/NHBE co-culture indicated a protective role of epithelial-fibroblastic cross-talk against TGFβ-induced EMT, fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition (FMT) and inflammatory cytokine release (IL-6, IL-8, IL-13, IL-1β, TNF-α). DHLF co-cultures showed no significant phenotypic transition upon stimulation, likely due to the constitutively high expression of TGFβ isoforms prior to any exogenous stimulation. The model developed provides an alternative method to generate IPF-related bronchial epithelial phenotypes in vitro, through the direct co-culture of human lung fibroblasts with NHBEs. These findings highlight the importance of fibroblast TGFβ signaling in EMT but that monocultures give rise to differential responses compared to co-cultures, when exposed to this pro-inflammatory stimulus. This holds implications for any translation conclusions drawn from monoculture studies and is an important step in development of more biomimetic models of IPF. In summary, we believe this in vitro system to study fibroblast-epithelial crosstalk, within the context of IPF, provides a platform which will aid in the identification and validation of novel targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Barron
- Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology Department, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Owen Wyatt
- Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology, Bioscience Asthma and Skin Immunity, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Andy O'Connor
- Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology, Bioscience Asthma and Skin Immunity, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - David Mansfield
- Imaging and Data Analytics, Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - E Suzanne Cohen
- Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology, Bioscience Asthma and Skin Immunity, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Tomasz M Witkos
- Analytical Sciences, Bioassay, Biosafety and Impurities, BioPharmaceutical Development, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sam Strickson
- Research and Early Development, Respiratory and Immunology, Bioscience Asthma and Skin Immunity, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Róisín M Owens
- Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology Department, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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Meyer TJ, Tekin N, Hense P, Ehret-Kasemo T, Lodes N, Stöth M, Ickrath P, Gehrke T, Hagen R, Dembski S, Peer M, Steinke MR, Scherzad A, Hackenberg S. Evaluation of the cytotoxic and genotoxic potential of printer toner particles in a 3D air-liquid interface, primary cell-based nasal tissue model. Toxicol Lett 2023; 379:1-10. [PMID: 36907250 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2023.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Printer toner particles (TPs) are a common, potentially hazardous substance, with an unclear toxicological impact on the respiratory mucosa. Most of the airways surface is covered by a ciliated respiratory mucosa, therefore appropriate tissue models of the respiratory epithelium with a high in vivo correlation are necessary for in vitro evaluation of airborne pollutants toxicology and the impact on the functional integrity. The aim of this study is the evaluation of TPs toxicology in a human primary cell-based air-liquid-interface (ALI) model of respiratory mucosa. The TPs were analyzed and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, pyrolysis and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. ALI models of 10 patients were created using the epithelial cells and fibroblasts derived from nasal mucosa samples. TPs were applied to the ALI models via a modified Vitrocell® cloud and submerged in the dosing 0.89 - 892.96 µg/ cm2. Particle exposure and intracellular distribution were evaluated by electron microscopy. The MTT assay and the comet assay were used to investigate cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, respectively. The used TPs showed an average particle size of 3 - 8 µm. Mainly carbon, hydrogen, silicon, nitrogen, tin, benzene and benzene derivates were detected as chemical ingredients. By histomorphology and electron microscopy we observed the development of a highly functional, pseudostratified epithelium with a continuous layer of cilia. Using electron microscopy, TPs could be detected on the cilia surface and also intracellularly. Cytotoxicity was detected from 9 µg/ cm2 and higher, but no genotoxicity after ALI and submerged exposure. The ALI with primary nasal cells represents a highly functional model of the respiratory epithelium in terms of histomorphology and mucociliary differentiation. The toxicological results indicate a weak TP-concentration-dependent cytotoxicity. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS: The datasets used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Affiliation(s)
- Till Jasper Meyer
- University Hospital Würzburg, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Plastic, Aesthetic & Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Nursen Tekin
- University Hospital Würzburg, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Plastic, Aesthetic & Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Peter Hense
- Bochum University of Applied Sciences, Department Civil and Environmental Engineering, Am Hochschulcampus 1, 44801 Bochum, Germany
| | - Totta Ehret-Kasemo
- University Hospital Würzburg, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Plastic, Aesthetic & Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Nina Lodes
- University Hospital Würzburg, Chair of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Röntgenring 11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Manuel Stöth
- University Hospital Würzburg, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Plastic, Aesthetic & Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Pascal Ickrath
- University Hospital Würzburg, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Plastic, Aesthetic & Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Gehrke
- University Hospital Würzburg, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Plastic, Aesthetic & Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Rudolf Hagen
- University Hospital Würzburg, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Plastic, Aesthetic & Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sofia Dembski
- University Hospital Würzburg, Chair of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Röntgenring 11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research ISC, Neunerplatz 2, 97082 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Michael Peer
- Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety, and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Institute Branch Sulzbach-Rosenberg, An der Maxhütte 1, 92237 Sulzbach-Rosenberg, Germany
| | - Maria R Steinke
- University Hospital Würzburg, Chair of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Röntgenring 11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany; Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research ISC, Neunerplatz 2, 97082 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Agmal Scherzad
- University Hospital Würzburg, Department of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Plastic, Aesthetic & Reconstructive Head and Neck Surgery, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Hackenberg
- RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Department of Otorhinolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Pauwelsstraße 30, 52074 Aachen, Germany
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Luengen AE, Cheremkhina M, Gonzalez-Rubio J, Weckauf J, Kniebs C, Uebner H, Buhl EM, Taube C, Cornelissen CG, Schmitz-Rode T, Jockenhoevel S, Thiebes AL. Bone Marrow Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Promote Vascularization and Ciliation in Airway Mucosa Tri-Culture Models in Vitro. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:872275. [PMID: 35782511 PMCID: PMC9247357 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.872275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients suffering from irresectable tracheal stenosis often face limited treatment options associated with low quality of life. To date, an optimal tracheal replacement strategy does not exist. A tissue-engineered tracheal substitute promises to overcome limitations such as implant vascularization, functional mucociliary clearance and mechanical stability. In order to advance a tracheal mucosa model recently developed by our group, we examined different supporting cell types in fibrin-based tri-culture with primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and primary human respiratory epithelial cells (HRE). Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BM-MSC), adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (ASC) and human nasal fibroblasts (HNF) were compared regarding their ability to promote mucociliary differentiation and vascularization in vitro. Three-dimensional co-cultures of the supporting cell types with either HRE or HUVEC were used as controls. Mucociliary differentiation and formation of vascular-like structures were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), periodic acid Schiff’s reaction (PAS reaction), two-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) and immunohistochemistry. Cytokine levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), interleukin-6 (IL6), interleukin-8 (IL8), angiopoietin 1, angiopoietin 2, fibroblast growth factor basic (FGF-b) and placenta growth factor (PIGF) in media supernatant were investigated using LEGENDplex™ bead-based immunoassay. Epithelial morphology of tri-cultures with BM-MSC most closely resembled native respiratory epithelium with respect to ciliation, mucus production as well as expression and localization of epithelial cell markers pan-cytokeratin, claudin-1, α-tubulin and mucin5AC. This was followed by tri-cultures with HNF, while ASC-supported tri-cultures lacked mucociliary differentiation. For all supporting cell types, a reduced ciliation was observed in tri-cultures compared to the corresponding co-cultures. Although formation of vascular-like structures was confirmed in all cultures, vascular networks in BM-MSC-tri-cultures were found to be more branched and extended. Concentrations of pro-angiogenic and inflammatory cytokines, in particular VEGF and angiopoietin 2, revealed to be reduced in tri-cultures compared to co-cultures. With these results, our study provides an important step towards a vascularized and ciliated tissue-engineered tracheal replacement. Additionally, our tri-culture model may in the future contribute to an improved understanding of cell-cell interactions in diseases associated with impaired mucosal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja E. Luengen
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), AME - Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Helmholtz Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Aachen-Maastricht Institute for Biobased Materials, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Brightlands Chemelot Campus, Geleen, Netherlands
| | - Maria Cheremkhina
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), AME - Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Helmholtz Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Aachen-Maastricht Institute for Biobased Materials, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Brightlands Chemelot Campus, Geleen, Netherlands
| | - Julian Gonzalez-Rubio
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), AME - Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Helmholtz Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Aachen-Maastricht Institute for Biobased Materials, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Brightlands Chemelot Campus, Geleen, Netherlands
| | - Jan Weckauf
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), AME - Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Helmholtz Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Aachen-Maastricht Institute for Biobased Materials, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Brightlands Chemelot Campus, Geleen, Netherlands
| | - Caroline Kniebs
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), AME - Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Helmholtz Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Aachen-Maastricht Institute for Biobased Materials, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Brightlands Chemelot Campus, Geleen, Netherlands
| | - Hendrik Uebner
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, University Medical Center Essen—Ruhrlandklinik, Essen, Germany
| | - E. Miriam Buhl
- Institute of Pathology, Electron Microscopy Facility, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Christian Taube
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, University Medical Center Essen—Ruhrlandklinik, Essen, Germany
| | - Christian G. Cornelissen
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), AME - Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Helmholtz Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Clinic for Pneumology and Internal Intensive Care Medicine (Medical Clinic V), RWTH Aachen University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Thomas Schmitz-Rode
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), AME - Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Helmholtz Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Stefan Jockenhoevel
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), AME - Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Helmholtz Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Aachen-Maastricht Institute for Biobased Materials, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Brightlands Chemelot Campus, Geleen, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Stefan Jockenhoevel, ; Anja Lena Thiebes,
| | - Anja Lena Thiebes
- Department of Biohybrid and Medical Textiles (BioTex), AME - Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, Helmholtz Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Aachen-Maastricht Institute for Biobased Materials, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Brightlands Chemelot Campus, Geleen, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Stefan Jockenhoevel, ; Anja Lena Thiebes,
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The Immune Mechanisms of Severe Equine Asthma-Current Understanding and What Is Missing. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12060744. [PMID: 35327141 PMCID: PMC8944511 DOI: 10.3390/ani12060744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe equine asthma is a chronic respiratory disease of adult horses, occurring when genetically susceptible individuals are exposed to environmental aeroallergens. This results in airway inflammation, mucus accumulation and bronchial constriction. Although several studies aimed at evaluating the genetic and immune pathways associated with the disease, the results reported are inconsistent. Furthermore, the complexity and heterogeneity of this disease bears great similarity to what is described for human asthma. Currently available studies identified two chromosome regions (ECA13 and ECA15) and several genes associated with the disease. The inflammatory response appears to be mediated by T helper cells (Th1, Th2, Th17) and neutrophilic inflammation significantly contributes to the persistence of airway inflammatory status. This review evaluates the reported findings pertaining to the genetical and immunological background of severe equine asthma and reflects on their implications in the pathophysiology of the disease whilst discussing further areas of research interest aiming at advancing treatment and prognosis of affected individuals.
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Selo MA, Sake JA, Kim KJ, Ehrhardt C. In vitro and ex vivo models in inhalation biopharmaceutical research - advances, challenges and future perspectives. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 177:113862. [PMID: 34256080 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.113862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Oral inhalation results in pulmonary drug targeting and thereby reduces systemic side effects, making it the preferred means of drug delivery for the treatment of respiratory disorders such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or cystic fibrosis. In addition, the high alveolar surface area, relatively low enzymatic activity and rich blood supply of the distal airspaces offer a promising pathway to the systemic circulation. This is particularly advantageous when a rapid onset of pharmacological action is desired or when the drug is suffering from stability issues or poor biopharmaceutical performance following oral administration. Several cell and tissue-based in vitro and ex vivo models have been developed over the years, with the intention to realistically mimic pulmonary biological barriers. It is the aim of this review to critically discuss the available models regarding their advantages and limitations and to elaborate further which biopharmaceutical questions can and cannot be answered using the existing models.
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Archer F, Bobet-Erny A, Gomes M. State of the art on lung organoids in mammals. Vet Res 2021; 52:77. [PMID: 34078444 PMCID: PMC8170649 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-021-00946-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The number and severity of diseases affecting lung development and adult respiratory function have stimulated great interest in developing new in vitro models to study lung in different species. Recent breakthroughs in 3-dimensional (3D) organoid cultures have led to new physiological in vitro models that better mimic the lung than conventional 2D cultures. Lung organoids simulate multiple aspects of the real organ, making them promising and useful models for studying organ development, function and disease (infection, cancer, genetic disease). Due to their dynamics in culture, they can serve as a sustainable source of functional cells (biobanking) and be manipulated genetically. Given the differences between species regarding developmental kinetics, the maturation of the lung at birth, the distribution of the different cell populations along the respiratory tract and species barriers for infectious diseases, there is a need for species-specific lung models capable of mimicking mammal lungs as they are of great interest for animal health and production, following the One Health approach. This paper reviews the latest developments in the growing field of lung organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Archer
- UMR754, IVPC, INRAE, EPHE, Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69007, Lyon, France.
| | - Alexandra Bobet-Erny
- UMR754, IVPC, INRAE, EPHE, Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69007, Lyon, France
| | - Maryline Gomes
- UMR754, IVPC, INRAE, EPHE, Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69007, Lyon, France
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What Have In Vitro Co-Culture Models Taught Us about the Contribution of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Interactions to Airway Inflammation and Remodeling in Asthma? Cells 2020; 9:cells9071694. [PMID: 32679790 PMCID: PMC7408556 DOI: 10.3390/cells9071694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
As the lung develops, epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk is essential for the developmental processes that drive cell proliferation, differentiation, and extracellular matrix (ECM) production within the lung epithelial-mesenchymal trophic unit (EMTU). In asthma, a number of the lung EMTU developmental signals have been associated with airway inflammation and remodeling, which has led to the hypothesis that aberrant activation of the asthmatic EMTU may lead to disease pathogenesis. Monoculture studies have aided in the understanding of the altered phenotype of airway epithelial and mesenchymal cells and their contribution to the pathogenesis of asthma. However, 3-dimensional (3D) co-culture models are needed to enable the study of epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk in the setting of the in vivo environment. In this review, we summarize studies using 3D co-culture models to assess how defective epithelial-mesenchymal communication contributes to chronic airway inflammation and remodeling within the asthmatic EMTU.
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Fang L, Sun Q, Roth M. Immunologic and Non-Immunologic Mechanisms Leading to Airway Remodeling in Asthma. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21030757. [PMID: 31979396 PMCID: PMC7037330 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Revised: 01/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Asthma increases worldwide without any definite reason and patient numbers double every 10 years. Drugs used for asthma therapy relax the muscles and reduce inflammation, but none of them inhibited airway wall remodeling in clinical studies. Airway wall remodeling can either be induced through pro-inflammatory cytokines released by immune cells, or direct binding of IgE to smooth muscle cells, or non-immunological stimuli. Increasing evidence suggests that airway wall remodeling is initiated early in life by epigenetic events that lead to cell type specific pathologies, and modulate the interaction between epithelial and sub-epithelial cells. Animal models are only available for remodeling in allergic asthma, but none for non-allergic asthma. In human asthma, the mechanisms leading to airway wall remodeling are not well understood. In order to improve the understanding of this asthma pathology, the definition of “remodeling” needs to be better specified as it summarizes a wide range of tissue structural changes. Second, it needs to be assessed if specific remodeling patterns occur in specific asthma pheno- or endo-types. Third, the interaction of the immune cells with tissue forming cells needs to be assessed in both directions; e.g., do immune cells always stimulate tissue cells or are inflamed tissue cells calling immune cells to the rescue? This review aims to provide an overview on immunologic and non-immunologic mechanisms controlling airway wall remodeling in asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Fang
- Pulmonary Cell Research & Pneumology, University Hospital & University of Basel, Petersgraben 4, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland;
| | - Qinzhu Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China;
| | - Michael Roth
- Pulmonary Cell Research & Pneumology, University Hospital & University of Basel, Petersgraben 4, CH-4031 Basel, Switzerland;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-61-265-2337
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