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Gökçe E, Milot E, Langeard A, Quarck G. Impact of repetitive home-based galvanic vestibular stimulation on cognitive skills in healthy older adults. Exp Gerontol 2024; 194:112504. [PMID: 38936440 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2024.112504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Revised: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
The human vestibular system is adversely affected by the aging process. Recent evidence indicates that vestibular information and cognitive functions are related, suggesting that age-related vestibular loss may contribute to cognitive impairment. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of repetitive, home-based galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) on cognitive functions in healthy older adults. Twenty-one participants (age = 64.66 ± 2.97 years, 12 females) were randomly allocated to either a home-based GVS or an active control group. The GVS intervention lasted 20 min per session, five times a week, for two weeks (10 sessions). Cognitive functions were assessed before and after the intervention using the Stroop Test, Trail Making Test A&B, and Dual-Task (digit recall and paper-pencil tracking test). Our findings revealed a significant group-by-time interaction effect for the tracking accuracy (F(1,18) = 7.713, p = 0.012, η p2 = 0.30), with only the home-based GVS group showing significant improvement (t = -2.544, p = 0.029). The proposed home-based GVS protocol offers a promising non-pharmacological avenue for enhancing visuospatial ability in healthy older adults. Further research is needed to investigate the effects of different GVS protocols on various cognitive functions, particularly in older individuals with different health conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evrim Gökçe
- Université de Caen Normandie, INSERM, COMETE U1075, CYCERON, CHU de Caen, Normandie Université, Caen, France.
| | - Emma Milot
- Université de Caen Normandie, INSERM, COMETE U1075, CYCERON, CHU de Caen, Normandie Université, Caen, France
| | - Antoine Langeard
- Université de Caen Normandie, INSERM, COMETE U1075, CYCERON, CHU de Caen, Normandie Université, Caen, France
| | - Gaëlle Quarck
- Université de Caen Normandie, INSERM, COMETE U1075, CYCERON, CHU de Caen, Normandie Université, Caen, France
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Xie H, Liang M, Mo Y, Schmidt C, Wang C, Chien JH. Comparison Between Effects of Galvanic and Vibration-Based Vestibular Stimulation on Postural Control and Gait Performance in Healthy Participants: A Systematic Review of Cross-Sectional Studies. Ann Biomed Eng 2024; 52:757-793. [PMID: 38148425 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-023-03425-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Electricity and vibration were two commonly used physical agents to provide vestibular stimulation in previous studies. This study aimed to systematically review the effects of galvanic (GVS) and vibration-based vestibular stimulation (VVS) on gait performance and postural control in healthy participants. Five bioscience and engineering databases, including MEDLINE via PubMed, CINAHL via EBSCO, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Embase, were searched until March 19th, 2023. Studies published between 2000 and 2023 in English involving GVS and VVS related to gait performance and postural control were included. The procedure was followed via the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The methodological quality of included studies was assessed using the NIH study quality assessment tool for observational cohort and cross-sectional studies. A total of 55 cross-sectional studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in this study. Five studies were good-quality while 49 were moderate-quality and 1 was poor-quality. There were 50 included studies involving GVS and 5 included studies involving VVS. GVS and VVS utilized different physical agents to provide vestibular stimulation and demonstrated similar effects on vestibular perception. Supra-threshold GVS and VVS produced vestibular perturbation that impaired gait performance and postural control, while sub-threshold GVS and VVS induced stochastic resonance phenomenon that led to an improvement. Bilateral vestibular stimulation demonstrated a greater effect on gait and posture than unilateral vestibular stimulation. Compared to GVS, VVS had the characteristics of better tolerance and fewer side effects, which may substitute GVS to provide more acceptable vestibular stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoyu Xie
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Meizhen Liang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yujia Mo
- Chan Division of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Cindy Schmidt
- Leon S. McGoogan Health Sciences Library, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Chuhuai Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Electrical stimulation of the peripheral and central vestibular system using noninvasive (galvanic vestibular stimulation, GVS) or invasive (intracranial electrical brain stimulation, iEBS) approaches have a long history of use in studying self-motion perception and balance control. The aim of this review is to summarize recent electrophysiological studies of the effects of GVS, and functional mapping of the central vestibular system using iEBS in awake patients. RECENT FINDINGS The use of GVS has become increasingly common in the assessment and treatment of a wide range of clinical disorders including vestibulopathy and Parkinson's disease. The results of recent single unit recording studies have provided new insight into the neural mechanisms underlying GVS-evoked improvements in perceptual and motor responses. Furthermore, the application of iEBS in patients with epilepsy or during awake brain surgery has provided causal evidence of vestibular information processing in mostly the middle cingulate cortex, posterior insula, inferior parietal lobule, amygdala, precuneus, and superior temporal gyrus. SUMMARY Recent studies have established that GVS evokes robust and parallel activation of both canal and otolith afferents that is significantly different from that evoked by natural head motion stimulation. Furthermore, there is evidence that GVS can induce beneficial neural plasticity in the central pathways of patients with vestibular loss. In addition, iEBS studies highlighted an underestimated contribution of areas in the medial part of the cerebral hemispheres to the cortical vestibular network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Lopez
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience (LNC), FR3C, Marseille, France
| | - Kathleen E. Cullen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University
- Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore 21205 MD, USA
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Abbariki F, Mikhail Y, Hamadjida A, Charron J, Mac-Thiong JM, Barthélemy D. Effect of galvanic vestibular stimulation applied at the onset of stance on muscular activity and gait cycle duration in healthy individuals. Front Neural Circuits 2023; 16:1065647. [PMID: 36845254 PMCID: PMC9946991 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.1065647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Locomotion requires the complex involvement of the spinal and supraspinal systems. So far, the role of vestibular input in gait has been assessed mainly with respect to gait stability. The noninvasive technique of galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) has been reported to decrease gait variability and increase gait speed, but the extent of its effect on spatiotemporal gait parameters is not fully known. Objective: Characterize vestibular responses during gait and determine the influence of GVS on cycle duration in healthy young participants. Methods: Fifteen right-handed individuals participated in the study. Electromyography (EMG) recordings of the bilateral soleus (SOL) and tibialis anterior muscles (TA) were performed. First, to determine stimulation intensity, an accelerometer placed on the vertex recorded the amplitude of the head tilts evoked by the GVS (1-4 mA, 200 ms) to establish a motor threshold (T). Second, while participants walked on a treadmill, GVS was applied at the onset of the stance phase during the treadmill gait with an intensity of 1 and 1.5 T with the cathode behind the right (RCathode) or left ear (LCathode). EMG traces were rectified, averaged (n = 30 stimuli), and analyzed. Latency, duration, and amplitude of vestibular responses as well as the mean duration of the gait cycles were measured. Results: GVS mainly induced long-latency responses in the right SOL, right TA and left TA. Only short-latency responses were triggered in the left SOL. Responses in the right SOL, left SOL and left TA were polarity dependent, being facilitatory with RCathode and inhibitory with LCathode, whereas responses in the right TA remained facilitatory regardless of the polarity. With the RCathode configuration, the stimulated cycle was prolonged compared with the control cycle at both 1 and 1.5 T, due to prolonged left SOL and TA EMG bursts, but no change was observed in right SOL and TA. With LCathode, GVS did not modify the cycle duration. Conclusion: During gait, a brief, low-intensity GVS pulse delivered at the right stance onset induced mainly long-latency polarity-dependent responses. Furthermore, a RCathode configuration increased the duration of the stimulated gait cycle by prolonging EMG activity on the anodic side. A similar approach could be explored to influence gait symmetry in individuals with neurological impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faezeh Abbariki
- School of Rehabilitation, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation of Greater Montreal (CRIR) and Centre Intégré Universitaire en Santé et Services Sociaux (CIUSSS) du Centre-Sud-de-l’Île-de-Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Youstina Mikhail
- Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Adjia Hamadjida
- Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Live Science, Higher Teacher Training College of Bertoua, University of Bertoua, Bertoua, Cameroon
| | - Jonathan Charron
- Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Jean-Marc Mac-Thiong
- Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre Intégré Universitaire en Santé et Services Sociaux du nord de l’île de Montréal (CIUSSS NIM), Hôpital du Sacré-coeur de Montréal (HSCM), Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Dorothy Barthélemy
- School of Rehabilitation, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation of Greater Montreal (CRIR) and Centre Intégré Universitaire en Santé et Services Sociaux (CIUSSS) du Centre-Sud-de-l’Île-de-Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre Intégré Universitaire en Santé et Services Sociaux du nord de l’île de Montréal (CIUSSS NIM), Hôpital du Sacré-coeur de Montréal (HSCM), Montréal, QC, Canada
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McLaren R, Smith PF, Taylor RL, Niazi IK, Taylor D. Scoping out noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation: a review of the parameters used to improve postural control. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1156796. [PMID: 37205050 PMCID: PMC10187481 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1156796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation (nGVS) has been used to facilitate vestibular function and improve gait and balance in people with poor postural control. The aim of this scoping review is to collate, summarize and report on the nGVS parameters that have been used to augment postural control. Method A systematic scoping review was conducted up to December 2022. Data were extracted and synthesized from 31 eligible studies. Key nGVS parameters were identified, and the importance of these parameters and their influence on postural control evaluated. Results A range of nGVS parameters have been used to augment postural control, including; noise waveform, amplitude, frequency band, duration of stimulation, method of amplitude optimization, size and composition of electrodes and the electrode skin interface. Conclusion Systematic evaluation of the individual parameters that can be manipulated in the nGVS waveform identified that a broad array of settings have been utilized in each parameter across the studies. Choices made around the electrode and electrode-skin interface, as well as the amplitude, frequency band, duration and timing of the waveform are likely to influence the efficacy of nGVS. The ability to draw robust conclusions about the selection of optimal nGVS parameters to improve postural control, is hindered by a lack of studies that directly compare parameter settings or consider the variability in individuals' response to nGVS. We propose a guideline for the accurate reporting of nGVS parameters, as a first step toward establishing standardized stimulation protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth McLaren
- Rehabilitation Innovation Centre, Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, School of Clinical Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- *Correspondence: Ruth McLaren,
| | - Paul F. Smith
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, The Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Rachael L. Taylor
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Imran Khan Niazi
- Rehabilitation Innovation Centre, Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, School of Clinical Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Centre of Chiropractic Research, New Zealand College of Chiropractic, Auckland, New Zealand
- Centre for Sensory-Motor Interactions, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Denise Taylor
- Rehabilitation Innovation Centre, Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, School of Clinical Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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McLaren R, Smith PF, Taylor RL, Ravindran S, Rashid U, Taylor D. Efficacy of nGVS to improve postural stability in people with bilateral vestibulopathy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:1010239. [PMID: 36248647 PMCID: PMC9553993 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1010239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation (nGVS) has been used to boost vestibular afferent information to the central nervous system. This has the potential to improve postural control for people for whom vestibular signals are weak, such as in bilateral vestibulopathy (BVP). The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to investigate the evidence for nGVS as a modality to improve postural control in people with BVP. Methods A comprehensive systematic search was conducted of five databases up to July 2022 to find studies applying nGVS to people with BVP, with the aim of improving postural control. Two independent reviewers screened and identified eligible studies, completed a risk of bias evaluation (Cochrane) and extracted relevant data. The standardized mean difference (SMD) based on Hedges' g was calculated as a measure of effect size for the primary outcome measure that best identified postural control, and a forest plot generated. Results Seven studies met the eligibility criteria, with five being suitable for meta-analysis. Meta-analysis revealed a moderate effect in favor of nGVS improving postural control during standing and walking [pooled SMD = 0.47 95% CI (0.25, 0.7)]. nGVS-mediated improvements in postural control were most evident in observations of reduced sway velocity when standing on a firm surface with eyes closed, and in the reduced variability of gait parameters, particularly those measuring lateral stability. Conclusions Coincident nGVS in people with BVP improves postural control during standing and walking. This improvement appears to be context specific, in that vestibular augmentation is most effective in situations where visual inputs are limited, and where reliable context specific proprioceptive cues are available. Further research is warranted investigating additional circumstances in which nGVS improves postural control, including investigating the residual, and sustained effects of nGVS. Systematic review registration https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=342147, identifier: 342147.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth McLaren
- Rehabilitation Innovation Centre, Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, School of Clinical Science, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- *Correspondence: Ruth McLaren
| | - Paul F. Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, The Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Rachael L. Taylor
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Shobika Ravindran
- Rehabilitation Innovation Centre, Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, School of Clinical Science, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Usman Rashid
- Rehabilitation Innovation Centre, Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, School of Clinical Science, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Denise Taylor
- Rehabilitation Innovation Centre, Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, School of Clinical Science, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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Assländer L, Giboin LS, Gruber M, Schniepp R, Wuehr M. No evidence for stochastic resonance effects on standing balance when applying noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation in young healthy adults. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12327. [PMID: 34112904 PMCID: PMC8192540 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91808-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation (nGVS) at imperceptible levels has been shown to reduce body sway. This reduction was commonly attributed to the mechanism of stochastic resonance (SR). However, it has never been explicitly tested whether nGVS-induced effects on body sway consistently follow a SR-like bell-shaped performance curve with maximal reductions in a particular range of noise intensities. To test this, body sway in 21 young healthy participants was measured during varying nGVS amplitudes while standing with eyes closed in 3 conditions (quiet stance, sway referencing, sinusoidal platform tilts). Presence of SR-like response dynamics in each trial was assessed (1) by a goodness-of-fit analysis using an established SR-curve model and (2) by ratings from 3 human experts. In accordance to theory, we found reductions of body sway at one nGVS amplitude in most trials (75–95%). However, only few trials exhibited SR-like bell-shaped performance curves with increasing noise amplitudes (10–33%). Instead, body sway measures rather fluctuated randomly across nGVS amplitudes. This implies that, at least in young healthy adults, nGVS effects on body sway are incompatible with SR. Thus, previously reported reductions of body sway at particular nGVS intensities more likely result from inherent variations of the performance metric or by other yet unknown mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Assländer
- Human Performance Research Centre, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.
| | - L S Giboin
- Human Performance Research Centre, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - M Gruber
- Human Performance Research Centre, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - R Schniepp
- German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders (DSGZ), Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany.,Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - M Wuehr
- German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders (DSGZ), Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
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Valdés BA, Lajoie K, Marigold DS, Menon C. Cortical Effects of Noisy Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21041476. [PMID: 33672519 PMCID: PMC7923808 DOI: 10.3390/s21041476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation (nGVS) can improve different motor, sensory, and cognitive behaviors. However, it is unclear how this stimulation affects brain activity to facilitate these improvements. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is inexpensive, portable, and less prone to motion artifacts than other neuroimaging technology. Thus, fNIRS has the potential to provide insight into how nGVS affects cortical activity during a variety of natural behaviors. Here we sought to: (1) determine if fNIRS can detect cortical changes in oxygenated (HbO) and deoxygenated (HbR) hemoglobin with application of subthreshold nGVS, and (2) determine how subthreshold nGVS affects this fNIRS-derived hemodynamic response. A total of twelve healthy participants received nGVS and sham stimulation during a seated, resting-state paradigm. To determine whether nGVS altered activity in select cortical regions of interest (BA40, BA39), we compared differences between nGVS and sham HbO and HbR concentrations. We found a greater HbR response during nGVS compared to sham stimulation in left BA40, a region previously associated with vestibular processing, and with all left hemisphere channels combined (p < 0.05). We did not detect differences in HbO responses for any region during nGVS (p > 0.05). Our results suggest that fNIRS may be suitable for understanding the cortical effects of nGVS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bulmaro A. Valdés
- Menrva Research Group, Schools of Mechatronic Systems and Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, 250-13450 102nd Avenue, Surrey, BC V5A 1S6, Canada; (B.A.V.); (K.L.)
| | - Kim Lajoie
- Menrva Research Group, Schools of Mechatronic Systems and Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, 250-13450 102nd Avenue, Surrey, BC V5A 1S6, Canada; (B.A.V.); (K.L.)
| | - Daniel S. Marigold
- Sensorimotor Neuroscience Lab, Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada;
| | - Carlo Menon
- Menrva Research Group, Schools of Mechatronic Systems and Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, 250-13450 102nd Avenue, Surrey, BC V5A 1S6, Canada; (B.A.V.); (K.L.)
- Biomedical and Mobile Health Technology Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
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Lajoie K, Marigold DS, Valdés BA, Menon C. The potential of noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation for optimizing and assisting human performance. Neuropsychologia 2021; 152:107751. [PMID: 33434573 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation (nGVS) is an emerging non-invasive brain stimulation technique. It involves applying alternating currents of different frequencies and amplitudes presented in a random, or noisy, manner through electrodes on the mastoid bones behind the ears. Because it directly activates vestibular hair cells and afferents and has an indirect effect on a variety of brain regions, it has the potential to impact many different functions. The objective of this review is twofold: (1) to review how nGVS affects motor, sensory, and cognitive performance in healthy adults; and (2) to discuss potential clinical applications of nGVS. First, we introduce the technique. We then describe the regions receiving and processing vestibular information. Next, we discuss the effects of nGVS on motor, sensory, and cognitive function in healthy adults. Subsequently, we outline its potential clinical applications. Finally, we highlight other electrical stimulation technologies and discuss why nGVS offers an alternative or complementary approach. Overall, nGVS appears promising for optimizing human performance and as an assistive technology, though further research is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Lajoie
- Menrva Research Group, Schools of Mechatronic Systems Engineering and Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, Metro Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Daniel S Marigold
- Sensorimotor Neuroscience Lab, Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
| | - Bulmaro A Valdés
- Menrva Research Group, Schools of Mechatronic Systems Engineering and Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, Metro Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Carlo Menon
- Menrva Research Group, Schools of Mechatronic Systems Engineering and Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, Metro Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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