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Calderón LCL, Cabanne GS, Marcos A, Novo SG, Torres C, Perez AM, Pybus OG, König GA. Phylodynamic analysis of foot-and-mouth disease virus evolution in Mar Chiquita, Argentina. Arch Virol 2024; 169:101. [PMID: 38630189 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-024-06028-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious disease affecting cloven-hoofed animals, resulting in considerable economic losses. Its causal agent is foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), a picornavirus. Due to its error-prone replication and rapid evolution, the transmission and evolutionary dynamics of FMDV can be studied using genomic epidemiological approaches. To analyze FMDV evolution and identify possible transmission routes in an Argentinean region, field samples that tested positive for FMDV by PCR were obtained from 21 farms located in the Mar Chiquita district. Whole FMDV genome sequences were obtained by PCR amplification in seven fragments and sequencing using the Sanger technique. The genome sequences obtained from these samples were then analyzed using phylogenetic, phylogeographic, and evolutionary approaches. Three local transmission clusters were detected among the sampled viruses. The dataset was analyzed using Bayesian phylodynamic methods with appropriate coalescent and relaxed molecular clock models. The estimated mean viral evolutionary rate was 1.17 × 10- 2 substitutions/site/year. No significant differences in the rate of viral evolution were observed between farms with vaccinated animals and those with unvaccinated animals. The most recent common ancestor of the sampled sequences was dated to approximately one month before the first reported case in the outbreak. Virus transmission started in the south of the district and later dispersed to the west, and finally arrived in the east. Different transmission routes among the studied herds, such as non-replicating vectors and close contact contagion (i.e., aerosols), may be responsible for viral spread.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gustavo S Cabanne
- Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Rivadavia"-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Andrea Marcos
- Coordinación general de Epidemiología y Análisis de Riesgo, SENASA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sabrina Galdo Novo
- DGLYCT - Dirección de Laboratorio Animal, SENASA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carolina Torres
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Bacteriología y Virología Molecular FFyB, UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Andrés M Perez
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, UMN, St Paul, USA
| | - Oliver G Pybus
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Guido A König
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología y Biología Molecular, INTA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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2
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Sessitsch A, Wakelin S, Schloter M, Maguin E, Cernava T, Champomier-Verges MC, Charles TC, Cotter PD, Ferrocino I, Kriaa A, Lebre P, Cowan D, Lange L, Kiran S, Markiewicz L, Meisner A, Olivares M, Sarand I, Schelkle B, Selvin J, Smidt H, van Overbeek L, Berg G, Cocolin L, Sanz Y, Fernandes WL, Liu SJ, Ryan M, Singh B, Kostic T. Microbiome Interconnectedness throughout Environments with Major Consequences for Healthy People and a Healthy Planet. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2023; 87:e0021222. [PMID: 37367231 PMCID: PMC10521359 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00212-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Microbiomes have highly important roles for ecosystem functioning and carry out key functions that support planetary health, including nutrient cycling, climate regulation, and water filtration. Microbiomes are also intimately associated with complex multicellular organisms such as humans, other animals, plants, and insects and perform crucial roles for the health of their hosts. Although we are starting to understand that microbiomes in different systems are interconnected, there is still a poor understanding of microbiome transfer and connectivity. In this review we show how microbiomes are connected within and transferred between different habitats and discuss the functional consequences of these connections. Microbiome transfer occurs between and within abiotic (e.g., air, soil, and water) and biotic environments, and can either be mediated through different vectors (e.g., insects or food) or direct interactions. Such transfer processes may also include the transmission of pathogens or antibiotic resistance genes. However, here, we highlight the fact that microbiome transmission can have positive effects on planetary and human health, where transmitted microorganisms potentially providing novel functions may be important for the adaptation of ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Emmanuelle Maguin
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Tomislav Cernava
- University of Southampton, Faculty of Environmental and Life Sciences, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Paul D. Cotter
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, APC Microbiome Ireland and VistaMilk, Cork, Ireland
| | | | - Aicha Kriaa
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Pedro Lebre
- University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Don Cowan
- University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Lene Lange
- LL-BioEconomy, Valby, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Lidia Markiewicz
- Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Immunology and Food Microbiology, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Annelein Meisner
- Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marta Olivares
- Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, Excellence Center Severo Ochoa – Spanish National Research Council (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | - Inga Sarand
- Tallinn University of Technology, Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn, Estonia
| | | | | | - Hauke Smidt
- Wageningen University and Research, Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Leo van Overbeek
- Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Yolanda Sanz
- Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, Excellence Center Severo Ochoa – Spanish National Research Council (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
| | | | - S. J. Liu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Microbiology, Beijing, China
| | - Matthew Ryan
- Genetic Resources Collection, CABI, Egham, United Kingdom
| | - Brajesh Singh
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tanja Kostic
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Tulln, Austria
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3
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Cardenas NC, Sanchez F, Lopes FPN, Machado G. Coupling spatial statistics with social network analysis to estimate distinct risk areas of disease circulation to improve risk-based surveillance. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:e2757-e2768. [PMID: 35694801 PMCID: PMC9796646 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Most animal disease surveillance systems concentrate efforts in blocking transmission pathways and tracing back infected contacts while not considering the risk of transporting animals into areas with elevated disease risk. Here, we use a suite of spatial statistics and social network analysis to characterize animal movement among areas with an estimated distinct risk of disease circulation to ultimately enhance surveillance activities. Our model utilized equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) outbreaks, between-farm horse movements, and spatial landscape data from 2015 through 2017. We related EIAV occurrence and the movement of horses between farms with climate variables that foster conditions for local disease propagation. We then constructed a spatially explicit model that allows the effect of the climate variables on EIAV occurrence to vary through space (i.e., non-stationary). Our results identified important areas in which in-going movements were more likely to result in EIAV infections and disease propagation. Municipalities were then classified as having high 56 (11.3%), medium 48 (9.66%), and low 393 (79.1%) spatial risk. The majority of the movements were between low-risk areas, altogether representing 68.68% of all animal movements. Meanwhile, 9.48% were within high-risk areas, and 6.20% were within medium-risk areas. Only 5.37% of the animals entering low-risk areas came from high-risk areas. On the other hand, 4.91% of the animals in the high-risk areas came from low- and medium-risk areas. Our results demonstrate that animal movements and spatial risk mapping could be used to make informed decisions before issuing animal movement permits, thus potentially reducing the chances of reintroducing infection into areas of low risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas C. Cardenas
- Department of Population Health and PathobiologyCollege of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Felipe Sanchez
- Department of Population Health and PathobiologyCollege of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNorth CarolinaUSA,Center for Geospatial AnalyticsNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Francisco P. N. Lopes
- Departamento de Defesa AgropecuáriaSecretaria da AgriculturaPecuária e Desenvolvimento Rural (SEAPDR)Porto AlegreBrazil
| | - Gustavo Machado
- Department of Population Health and PathobiologyCollege of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNorth CarolinaUSA
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4
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Grant M, Bröjer C, Zohari S, Nöremark M, Uhlhorn H, Jansson DS. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI H5Nx, Clade 2.3.4.4.b) in Poultry and Wild Birds in Sweden: Synopsis of the 2020-2021 Season. Vet Sci 2022; 9:344. [PMID: 35878361 PMCID: PMC9318561 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9070344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI, Gs/Gd lineage) was introduced to Europe in 2005 and has since caused numerous outbreaks in birds. The 2020-2021 season was the hitherto most devastating when considering bird numbers and duration in Europe. Surveillance data, virologic results and epidemiologic investigations from the 2020-2021 outbreaks in Sweden were analysed. Subtypes H5N8 and H5N5 were detected on 24 farms with poultry or other captive birds. In wild birds, subtypes H5N8, H5N5, H5N1, H5N4, H5Nx were detected in 130 out of 811 sampled birds. There was a spatiotemporal association between cases in wild birds and poultry. Based on phylogeny and epidemiology, most of the introductions of HPAI to commercial poultry were likely a result of indirect contact with wild birds. A definite route of introduction to poultry could not be established although some biosecurity breaches were observed. No spread between farms was identified but airborne spread between flocks on the same farm was suspected. Our findings exemplify the challenges posed by the continuously changing influenza viruses that seem to adapt to a broader species spectrum. This points to the importance of wild bird surveillance, compliance to biosecurity, and identification of risk factors for introduction on poultry farms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malin Grant
- Department of Disease Control and Epidemiology, National Veterinary Institute, 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden; (M.G.); (M.N.)
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Caroline Bröjer
- Department of Pathology and Wildlife Diseases, National Veterinary Institute, 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden; (C.B.); (H.U.)
| | - Siamak Zohari
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute, 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | - Maria Nöremark
- Department of Disease Control and Epidemiology, National Veterinary Institute, 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden; (M.G.); (M.N.)
| | - Henrik Uhlhorn
- Department of Pathology and Wildlife Diseases, National Veterinary Institute, 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden; (C.B.); (H.U.)
| | - Désirée S. Jansson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Animal Health and Antimicrobial Strategies, National Veterinary Institute, 751 89 Uppsala, Sweden
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5
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Airborne Transmission of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus: A Review of Past and Present Perspectives. Viruses 2022; 14:v14051009. [PMID: 35632750 PMCID: PMC9145556 DOI: 10.3390/v14051009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary transmission route for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), a contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals, is by direct contact with infected animals. Yet indirect methods of transmission, such as via the airborne route, have been shown to play an important role in the spread of the disease. Airborne transmission of FMD is referred to as a low probability- high consequence event as a specific set of factors need to coincide to facilitate airborne spread. When conditions are favourable, airborne virus may spread rapidly and cause disease beyond the imposed quarantine zones, thus complicating control measures. Therefore, it is important to understand the nature of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) within aerosols; how aerosols are generated, viral load, how far aerosols could travel and survive under different conditions. Various studies have investigated emissions from infected animals under laboratory conditions, while others have incorporated experimental data in mathematical models to predict and trace outbreaks of FMD. However, much of the existing literature focussing on FMDV in aerosols describe work which was undertaken over 40 years ago. The aim of this review is to revisit existing knowledge and investigate how modern instrumentation and modelling approaches can improve our understanding of airborne transmission of FMD.
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6
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Cardenas NC, Sykes AL, Lopes FPN, Machado G. Multiple species animal movements: network properties, disease dynamics and the impact of targeted control actions. Vet Res 2022; 53:14. [PMID: 35193675 PMCID: PMC8862288 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-022-01031-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases in livestock are well-known to infect multiple hosts and persist through a combination of within- and between-host transmission pathways. Uncertainty remains about the epidemic dynamics of diseases being introduced on farms with more than one susceptible host species. Here, we describe multi-host contact networks and elucidate the potential of disease spread through farms with multiple hosts. Four years of between-farm animal movement among all farms of a Brazilian state were described through a static and monthly snapshot of network representations. We developed a stochastic multilevel model to simulate scenarios in which infection was seeded into single host and multi-host farms to quantify disease spread potential, and simulate network-based control actions used to evaluate the reduction of secondarily infected farms. We showed that the swine network was more connected than cattle and small ruminants in both the static and monthly snapshots. The small ruminant network was highly fragmented, however, contributed to interconnecting farms, with other hosts acting as intermediaries throughout the networks. When a single host was initially infected, secondary infections were observed across farms with all other species. Our stochastic multi-host model demonstrated that targeting the top 3.25% of the farms ranked by degree reduced the number of secondarily infected farms. The results of the simulation highlight the importance of considering multi-host dynamics and contact networks while designing surveillance and preparedness control strategies against pathogens known to infect multiple species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas C Cardenas
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Abagael L Sykes
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Francisco P N Lopes
- Departamento de Defesa Agropecuária, Secretaria da Agricultura, Pecuária e Desenvolvimento Rural (SEAPDR), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Machado
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.
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7
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Guyver-Fletcher G, Gorsich EE, Tildesley MJ. A model exploration of carrier and movement transmission as potential explanatory causes for the persistence of foot-and-mouth disease in endemic regions. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:2712-2726. [PMID: 34936219 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a virulent and economically important disease of livestock, still endemic in many areas of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Transmission from persistently infected livestock, also known as carriers, has been proposed as a mechanism to support the persistence of FMD in endemic regions. However, whether carrier livestock can infect susceptible animals is controversial; recovered virus is infectious and there are claims of field transmission, but it remains undemonstrated experimentally. Alternate hypotheses for persistence include the movement of livestock within and between regions, and fomite contamination of the environment. Using a stochastic compartmental ordinary differential equation (ODE) model, we investigate the minimum rates of carrier transmission necessary to contribute to the maintenance of FMD in a region, and compare this to the alternate mechanism of persistence through cattle shipments. We find that carrier transmission can theoretically support persistence even at transmission rates much lower than the highest realistic rates previously proposed, and that the parameters with the most effect on the feasibility of carrier-mediated persistence are the average duration of both the carrier phase and natural immunity. However, shipment-mediated persistence remains a viable alternate mechanism for persistence without carrier transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glen Guyver-Fletcher
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.,School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Erin E Gorsich
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.,School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Michael J Tildesley
- Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.,School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.,Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
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8
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Tao Y, Probert WJM, Shea K, Runge MC, Lafferty K, Tildesley M, Ferrari M. Causes of delayed outbreak responses and their impacts on epidemic spread. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20200933. [PMID: 33653111 PMCID: PMC8086880 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Livestock diseases have devastating consequences economically, socially and politically across the globe. In certain systems, pathogens remain viable after host death, which enables residual transmissions from infected carcasses. Rapid culling and carcass disposal are well-established strategies for stamping out an outbreak and limiting its impact; however, wait-times for these procedures, i.e. response delays, are typically farm-specific and time-varying due to logistical constraints. Failing to incorporate variable response delays in epidemiological models may understate outbreak projections and mislead management decisions. We revisited the 2001 foot-and-mouth epidemic in the United Kingdom and sought to understand how misrepresented response delays can influence model predictions. Survival analysis identified farm size and control demand as key factors that impeded timely culling and disposal activities on individual farms. Using these factors in the context of an existing policy to predict local variation in response times significantly affected predictions at the national scale. Models that assumed fixed, timely responses grossly underestimated epidemic severity and its long-term consequences. As a result, this study demonstrates how general inclusion of response dynamics and recognition of partial controllability of interventions can help inform management priorities during epidemics of livestock diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Tao
- Intelligence Community Postdoctoral Research Fellowship Program, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.,Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - William J M Probert
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Katriona Shea
- Department of Biology, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,The Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Michael C Runge
- US Geological Survey, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Kevin Lafferty
- US Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center at Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Michael Tildesley
- The Zeeman Institute for Systems Biology and Infectious Disease Epidemiology Research, School of Life Sciences and Mathematics Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, West Midlands, UK
| | - Matthew Ferrari
- Department of Biology, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,The Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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9
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Galvis JA, Jones CM, Prada JM, Corzo CA, Machado G. The between-farm transmission dynamics of porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus: A short-term forecast modelling comparison and the effectiveness of control strategies. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:396-412. [PMID: 33475245 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
A limited understanding of the transmission dynamics of swine disease is a significant obstacle to prevent and control disease spread. Therefore, understanding between-farm transmission dynamics is crucial to developing disease forecasting systems to predict outbreaks that would allow the swine industry to tailor control strategies. Our objective was to forecast weekly porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) outbreaks by generating maps to identify current and future PEDV high-risk areas, and simulating the impact of control measures. Three epidemiological transmission models were developed and compared: a novel epidemiological modelling framework was developed specifically to model disease spread in swine populations, PigSpread, and two models built on previously developed ecosystems, SimInf (a stochastic disease spread simulations) and PoPS (Pest or Pathogen Spread). The models were calibrated on true weekly PEDV outbreaks from three spatially related swine production companies. Prediction accuracy across models was compared using the receiver operating characteristic area under the curve (AUC). Model outputs had a general agreement with observed outbreaks throughout the study period. PoPS had an AUC of 0.80, followed by PigSpread with 0.71, and SimInf had the lowest at 0.59. Our analysis estimates that the combined strategies of herd closure, controlled exposure of gilts to live viruses (feedback) and on-farm biosecurity reinforcement reduced the number of outbreaks. On average, 76% to 89% reduction was seen in sow farms, while in gilt development units (GDU) was between 33% to 61% when deployed to sow and GDU farms located in probabilistic high-risk areas. Our multi-model forecasting approach can be used to prioritize surveillance and intervention strategies for PEDV and other diseases potentially leading to more resilient and healthier pig production systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason A Galvis
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Chris M Jones
- Center for Geospatial Analytics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Joaquin M Prada
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Cesar A Corzo
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
| | - Gustavo Machado
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, USA.,Center for Geospatial Analytics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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10
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Björnham O, Sigg R, Burman J. Correction: Multilevel model for airborne transmission of foot-and-mouth disease applied to Swedish livestock. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0244374. [PMID: 33326479 PMCID: PMC7743921 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
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