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Ossola R, Farmer D. The Chemical Landscape of Leaf Surfaces and Its Interaction with the Atmosphere. Chem Rev 2024; 124:5764-5794. [PMID: 38652704 PMCID: PMC11082906 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Atmospheric chemists have historically treated leaves as inert surfaces that merely emit volatile hydrocarbons. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that leaves are ubiquitous substrates for multiphase reactions-implying the presence of chemicals on their surfaces. This Review provides an overview of the chemistry and reactivity of the leaf surface's "chemical landscape", the dynamic ensemble of compounds covering plant leaves. We classified chemicals as endogenous (originating from the plant and its biome) or exogenous (delivered from the environment), highlighting the biological, geographical, and meteorological factors driving their contributions. Based on available data, we predicted ≫2 μg cm-2 of organics on a typical leaf, leading to a global estimate of ≫3 Tg for multiphase reactions. Our work also highlighted three major knowledge gaps: (i) the overlooked role of ambient water in enabling the leaching of endogenous substances and mediating aqueous chemistry; (ii) the importance of phyllosphere biofilms in shaping leaf surface chemistry and reactivity; (iii) the paucity of studies on the multiphase reactivity of atmospheric oxidants with leaf-adsorbed chemicals. Although biased toward available data, we hope this Review will spark a renewed interest in the leaf surface's chemical landscape and encourage multidisciplinary collaborations to move the field forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachele Ossola
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado
State University, 80523 Fort Collins, Colorado (United States)
| | - Delphine Farmer
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado
State University, 80523 Fort Collins, Colorado (United States)
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Fradera-Soler M, Mravec J, Schulz A, Taboryski R, Jørgensen B, Grace OM. Revisiting an ecophysiological oddity: Hydathode-mediated foliar water uptake in Crassula species from southern Africa. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2024; 47:460-481. [PMID: 37876364 DOI: 10.1111/pce.14743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
Hydathodes are usually associated with water exudation in plants. However, foliar water uptake (FWU) through the hydathodes has long been suspected in the leaf-succulent genus Crassula (Crassulaceae), a highly diverse group in southern Africa, and, to our knowledge, no empirical observations exist in the literature that unequivocally link FWU to hydathodes in this genus. FWU is expected to be particularly beneficial on the arid western side of southern Africa, where up to 50% of Crassula species occur and where periodically high air humidity leads to fog and/or dew formation. To investigate if hydathode-mediated FWU is operational in different Crassula species, we used the apoplastic fluorescent tracer Lucifer Yellow in combination with different imaging techniques. Our images of dye-treated leaves confirm that hydathode-mediated FWU does indeed occur in Crassula and that it might be widespread across the genus. Hydathodes in Crassula serve as moisture-harvesting structures, besides their more common purpose of guttation, an adaptation that has likely played an important role in the evolutionary history of the genus. Our observations suggest that ability for FWU is independent of geographical distribution and not restricted to arid environments under fog influence, as FWU is also operational in Crassula species from the rather humid eastern side of southern Africa. Our observations point towards no apparent link between FWU ability and overall leaf surface wettability in Crassula. Instead, the hierarchically sculptured leaf surfaces of several Crassula species may facilitate FWU due to hydrophilic leaf surface microdomains, even in seemingly hydrophobic species. Overall, these results confirm the ecophysiological relevance of hydathode-mediated FWU in Crassula and reassert the importance of atmospheric humidity for some arid-adapted plant groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Fradera-Soler
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
| | - Jozef Mravec
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
- Institute of Plant Genetics and Biotechnology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Plant Science and Biodiversity Center, Nitra, Slovakia
| | - Alexander Schulz
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Rafael Taboryski
- National Centre for Nano Fabrication and Characterization (DTU Nanolab), Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Bodil Jørgensen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Olwen M Grace
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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Paauw M, van Hulten M, Chatterjee S, Berg JA, Taks NW, Giesbers M, Richard MMS, van den Burg HA. Hydathode immunity protects the Arabidopsis leaf vasculature against colonization by bacterial pathogens. Curr Biol 2023; 33:697-710.e6. [PMID: 36731466 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Plants prevent disease by passively and actively protecting potential entry routes against invading microbes. For example, the plant immune system actively guards roots, wounds, and stomata. How plants prevent vascular disease upon bacterial entry via guttation fluids excreted from specialized glands at the leaf margin remains largely unknown. These so-called hydathodes release xylem sap when root pressure is too high. By studying hydathode colonization by both hydathode-adapted (Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris) and non-adapted pathogenic bacteria (Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato) in immunocompromised Arabidopsis mutants, we show that the immune hubs BAK1 and EDS1-PAD4-ADR1 restrict bacterial multiplication in hydathodes. Both immune hubs effectively confine bacterial pathogens to hydathodes and lower the number of successful escape events of an hydathode-adapted pathogen toward the xylem. A second layer of defense, which is dependent on the plant hormones' pipecolic acid and to a lesser extent on salicylic acid, reduces the vascular spread of the pathogen. Thus, besides glands, hydathodes represent a potent first line of defense against leaf-invading microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misha Paauw
- Molecular Plant Pathology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences (SILS), University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marieke van Hulten
- Molecular Plant Pathology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences (SILS), University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sayantani Chatterjee
- Molecular Plant Pathology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences (SILS), University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen A Berg
- Molecular Plant Pathology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences (SILS), University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nanne W Taks
- Molecular Plant Pathology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences (SILS), University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel Giesbers
- Wageningen Electron Microscopy Centre, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University & Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 4, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Manon M S Richard
- Molecular Plant Pathology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences (SILS), University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Harrold A van den Burg
- Molecular Plant Pathology, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences (SILS), University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Bertolino LT, Caine RS, Zoulias N, Yin X, Chater CCC, Biswal A, Quick WP, Gray JE. Stomatal Development and Gene Expression in Rice Florets. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 63:1679-1694. [PMID: 35993973 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcac120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Stomata play a fundamental role in modulating the exchange of gases between plants and the atmosphere. These microscopic structures form in high numbers on the leaf epidermis and are also present on flowers. Although leaf stomata are well studied, little attention has been paid to the development or function of floral stomata. Here, we characterize in detail the spatial distribution and development of the floral stomata of the indica rice variety IR64. We show that stomatal complexes are present at low density on specific areas of the lemma, palea and anthers and are morphologically different compared to stomata found on leaves. We reveal that in the bract-like organs, stomatal development follows the same cell lineage transitions as in rice leaves and demonstrate that the overexpression of the stomatal development regulators OsEPFL9-1 and OsEPF1 leads to dramatic changes in stomatal density in rice floral organs, producing lemma with approximately twice as many stomata (OsEPFL9-1_oe) or lemma where stomata are practically absent (OsEPF1_oe). Transcriptomic analysis of developing florets also indicates that the cellular transitions during the development of floral stomata are regulated by the same genetic network used in rice leaves. Finally, although we were unable to detect an impact on plant reproduction linked to changes in the density of floral stomata, we report alterations in global gene expression in lines overexpressing OsEPF1 and discuss how our results reflect on the possible role(s) of floral stomata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lígia T Bertolino
- Grantham Centre for Sustainable Futures, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Robert S Caine
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Nicholas Zoulias
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Xiaojia Yin
- International Rice Research Institute, DAPO 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines
| | - Caspar C C Chater
- Trait Diversity and Function, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE, UK
| | - Akshaya Biswal
- Global Wheat Program, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico City 06600, Mexico
| | - William P Quick
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
- International Rice Research Institute, DAPO 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines
| | - Julie E Gray
- School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
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Abstract
Bellenot et al. introduce hydathodes, an oft-overlooked plant organ that acts as a pressure valve to expel excess guttation sap at the leaf margin, typically visible at dawn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Bellenot
- Laboratoire des Interactions Plantes-Microbes-Environnement (LIPME), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, CNRS, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Jean-Marc Routaboul
- Laboratoire des Interactions Plantes-Microbes-Environnement (LIPME), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, CNRS, Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Patrick Laufs
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin (IJPB), Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Versailles, France
| | - Laurent D Noël
- Laboratoire des Interactions Plantes-Microbes-Environnement (LIPME), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, CNRS, Castanet-Tolosan, France.
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Yagi H, Tamura K, Matsushita T, Shimada T. Spatiotemporal relationship between auxin dynamics and hydathode development in Arabidopsis leaf teeth. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2021; 16:1989216. [PMID: 34696695 PMCID: PMC9208764 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2021.1989216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Hydathode is a plant tissue of vascular plants involved in water release called guttation. Arabidopsis hydathodes are found at the tips of leaf teeth and contain three major components: water pores, xylem ends, and small cells. Leaf teeth are known as the main parts for auxin biosynthesis and accumulation during leaf development. However, the detailed spatiotemporal relationship between auxin dynamics and hydathode development is unknown. In this study, we show that auxin biosynthesis and accumulation precede hydathode development. A triple marker line (called YDE line) containing three leaf tooth markers: YUC4:nls-3xGFP (auxin biosynthesis), DR5rev:erRFP (auxin accumulation or maxima), and E325-GFP (hydathode development), was generated, and spatiotemporal confocal microscopic analysis was carried out. The expression area of these markers became larger during leaf development, implying that the hydathode size enlarges as the leaf tooth grows. Detailed observation revealed that the auxin-related markers YUC4:nls-GFP and DR5rev:erRFP were first expressed in the early stage of leaf tooth growth. Then, E325-GFP was expressed partly overlapping with the auxin markers at a later stage. These findings provide new insights into the spatiotemporal relationship between auxin dynamics and hydathode development in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Yagi
- Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kentaro Tamura
- Department of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan
| | | | - Tomoo Shimada
- Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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Torii KU. Stomatal development in the context of epidermal tissues. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2021; 128:137-148. [PMID: 33877316 PMCID: PMC8324025 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcab052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stomata are adjustable pores on the surface of plant shoots for efficient gas exchange and water control. The presence of stomata is essential for plant growth and survival, and the evolution of stomata is considered as a key developmental innovation of the land plants, allowing colonization on land from aquatic environments some 450 million years ago. In the past two decades, molecular genetic studies using the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana identified key genes and signalling modules that regulate stomatal development: master regulatory transcription factors that orchestrate cell state transitions and peptide-receptor signal transduction pathways, which, together, enforce proper patterning of stomata within the epidermis. Studies in diverse plant species, ranging from bryophytes to angiosperm grasses, have begun to unravel the conservation and uniqueness of the core modules in stomatal development. SCOPE Here, I review the mechanisms of stomatal development in the context of epidermal tissue patterning. First, I introduce the core regulatory mechanisms of stomatal patterning and differentiation in the model species A. thaliana. Subsequently, experimental evidence is presented supporting the idea that different cell types within the leaf epidermis, namely stomata, hydathodes pores, pavement cells and trichomes, either share developmental origins or mutually influence each other's gene regulatory circuits during development. Emphasis is placed on extrinsic and intrinsic signals regulating the balance between stomata and pavement cells, specifically by controlling the fate of stomatal-lineage ground cells (SLGCs) to remain within the stomatal cell lineage or differentiate into pavement cells. Finally, I discuss the influence of intertissue layer communication between the epidermis and underlying mesophyll/vascular tissues on stomatal differentiation. Understanding the dynamic behaviours of stomatal precursor cells and their differentiation in the broader context of tissue and organ development may help design plants tailored for optimal growth and productivity in specific agricultural applications and a changing environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko U Torii
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, AustinTX, USA
- Institute of Transformative Biomolecules (WPI-ITbM), Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
- For correspondence: E-mail
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