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Zhuo M. Cortical synaptic basis of consciousness. Eur J Neurosci 2024; 59:796-806. [PMID: 38013403 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.16198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Consciousness is one of final questions for humans to tackle in neuroscience. Due to a lack of understanding of basic brain networks and mechanisms of functions, our knowledge of consciousness mainly stays at a theoretical level. Recent studies using brain imaging in humans and modern neuroscience techniques in animal studies reveal the basic brain network for consciousness. The projection from the thalamus to different cortical regions forms a network of activities to maintain consciousness in humans and animals. These feedback and feedforward circuits maintain consciousness even in certain brain injury conditions. Pterions and ion channels that contribute to these circuit neural activities are targets for drugs and manipulations that affect consciousness such as anesthetic agents. Synaptic plasticity that trains synapses during learning and information recall modified the circuits and contributes to a high level of consciousness in a certain population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhuo
- Department of Pharmacology, Qingdao University School of Pharmacy, Qingdao, China
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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2
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Deljou A, Sprung J, Soleimani J, Schroeder DR, Weingarten TN. Caffeine administration to treat oversedation after general anesthesia: A retrospective analysis. J Clin Anesth 2024; 92:111321. [PMID: 37976682 DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinane.2023.111321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVE Our institution has adopted an informal practice of administering postoperative caffeine to expedite anesthesia recovery for patients with excessive sedation. This study aimed to determine whether caffeine administration was associated with improved sedation recovery and reduced risk of respiratory complications. DESIGN Single-center, retrospective, observational study. SETTING Quaternary medical center. PATIENTS We included adult patients who were admitted to a postanesthesia recovery care unit (PACU) after general anesthesia and had evidence of postoperative sedation (Richmond Agitation Sedation Score [RASS] < 0). Patients were seen from May 5, 2018, through December 31, 2020. INTERVENTIONS Patients were categorized according to caffeine administration (0 vs 250 mg). MEASUREMENTS Sedation was measured with RASS. To account for potential confounding, binary and ordinal logistic regression with inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) were used to compare RASS and episodes of severe respiratory complications within 48 h after PACU discharge. MAIN RESULTS We identified 47,222 adult surgical patients with evidence of sedation in the PACU, and of these, 1892 (4.0%) were intravenously administered caffeine. Patients who received caffeine had more sedation in the PACU. In the IPTW-adjusted analysis, caffeine administration was associated with improved sedation scores after PACU discharge (ordinal logistic regression odds ratio [OR], 1.13 [95% CI, 1.00-1.28]; P = .04 for the first RASS score after PACU discharge) but increased risk of respiratory complications (OR, 2.99 [95% CI, 1.44-6.24]; P = .003) and emergency response team activation (OR, 7.18 [95% CI, 2.85-18.10]; P < .001). CONCLUSIONS In this observational study, caffeine administration during anesthesia recovery was associated with improved sedation scores. However, it was also associated with an increased risk of respiratory complications, possibly reflecting selection bias (ie, administering caffeine to higher-risk patients). Patients with signs of excessive sedation during anesthesia recovery may benefit from enhanced postoperative respiratory monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atousa Deljou
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, United States of America.
| | - Juraj Sprung
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, United States of America
| | - Jalal Soleimani
- Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America; Research Fellow in the Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, United States of America; Mayo Clinic School of Graduate Medical Education, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | | | - Toby N Weingarten
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, United States of America
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Gervais C, Boucher LP, Villar GM, Lee U, Duclos C. A scoping review for building a criticality-based conceptual framework of altered states of consciousness. Front Syst Neurosci 2023; 17:1085902. [PMID: 37304151 PMCID: PMC10248073 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2023.1085902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The healthy conscious brain is thought to operate near a critical state, reflecting optimal information processing and high susceptibility to external stimuli. Conversely, deviations from the critical state are hypothesized to give rise to altered states of consciousness (ASC). Measures of criticality could therefore be an effective way of establishing the conscious state of an individual. Furthermore, characterizing the direction of a deviation from criticality may enable the development of treatment strategies for pathological ASC. The aim of this scoping review is to assess the current evidence supporting the criticality hypothesis, and the use of criticality as a conceptual framework for ASC. Using the PRISMA guidelines, Web of Science and PubMed were searched from inception to February 7th 2022 to find articles relating to measures of criticality across ASC. N = 427 independent papers were initially found on the subject. N = 378 were excluded because they were either: not related to criticality; not related to consciousness; not presenting results from a primary study; presenting model data. N = 49 independent papers were included in the present research, separated in 7 sub-categories of ASC: disorders of consciousness (DOC) (n = 5); sleep (n = 13); anesthesia (n = 18); epilepsy (n = 12); psychedelics and shamanic state of consciousness (n = 4); delirium (n = 1); meditative state (n = 2). Each category included articles suggesting a deviation of the critical state. While most studies were only able to identify a deviation from criticality without being certain of its direction, the preliminary consensus arising from the literature is that non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep reflects a subcritical state, epileptic seizures reflect a supercritical state, and psychedelics are closer to the critical state than normal consciousness. This scoping review suggests that, though the literature is limited and methodologically inhomogeneous, ASC are characterized by a deviation from criticality, though its direction is not clearly reported in a majority of studies. Criticality could become, with more extensive research, an effective and objective way to characterize ASC, and help identify therapeutic avenues to improve criticality in pathological brain states. Furthermore, we suggest how anesthesia and psychedelics could potentially be used as neuromodulation techniques to restore criticality in DOC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Gervais
- Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Centre for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine & Integrated Trauma Centre, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux du Nord-de-l’île-de-Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Louis-Philippe Boucher
- Centre for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine & Integrated Trauma Centre, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux du Nord-de-l’île-de-Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Neuroscience, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Guillermo Martinez Villar
- Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Centre for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine & Integrated Trauma Centre, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux du Nord-de-l’île-de-Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - UnCheol Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
- Center for Consciousness Science, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Catherine Duclos
- Centre for Advanced Research in Sleep Medicine & Integrated Trauma Centre, Centre Intégré Universitaire de Santé et de Services Sociaux du Nord-de-l’île-de-Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Neuroscience, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- CIFAR Azrieli Global Scholars Program, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Xie Z, Fox AP. Rapid emergence from dexmedetomidine sedation in Sprague Dawley rats by repurposing an α 2-adrenergic receptor competitive antagonist in combination with caffeine. BMC Anesthesiol 2023; 23:39. [PMID: 36721095 PMCID: PMC9890710 DOI: 10.1186/s12871-023-01986-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The α2 adrenergic receptor agonist dexmedetomidine is an important intravenous sedative with analgesic properties. Currently available dexmedetomidine reversal agents, like the α2-receptor antagonist atipamezole, cause serious adverse effects at the large dosages required for effective reversal; they are not used clinically. Without reversal agents, emergence times from dexmedetomidine sedation are slow. In this study we tested the ability of low-dose atipamezole, in combination with caffeine, to reverse dexmedetomidine sedation. The low dose of atipamezole employed should not be associated with unwanted effects. METHODS Two different sedation protocols were employed. In the first protocol, a bolus of dexmedetomidine was rapidly applied and the drug was allowed to equilibrate for 10 min before rats received either saline (as control) or low-dose atipamezole with caffeine. Following this procedure, rats were placed on their backs. Emergence from sedation was the time for rats to recover their righting reflex and stand with 4 paws on the floor. A second sedation protocol simulated a pediatric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. Adult rats were sedated with dexmedetomidine for one hour followed by 30 min with both dexmedetomidine and propofol. At the end of 90 min, rats received either saline (control) or a combination of low-dose atipamezole, and caffeine. Recovery of the righting reflex was used as a proxy for emergence from sedation. RESULTS Emergence from sedation, the time for rats to recover their righting reflex, decreased by ~ 90% when using an atipamezole dose ~ 20 fold lower than manufacturer's recommendation, supplemented with caffeine. Using an atipamezole dose ~ tenfold lower than recommended, with caffeine, emergence times decreased by ~ 97%. A different stimulant, forskolin, when tested, was as effective as caffeine. For the MRI simulation, emergence times were decreased by ~ 93% by low-dose atipamezole with caffeine. CONCLUSIONS Low dose atipamezole with caffeine was effective at reversing dexmedetomidine sedation. Emergence was rapid and the rats regained not only their righting reflex but also their balance and their ability to carry out complex behaviors. These findings suggest that the combination of low dose atipamezole with caffeine may permit rapid clinical reversal of dexmedetomidine without unwanted effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Xie
- Department of Anesthesia and Critical Care, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Aaron P Fox
- Department of Neurobiology, Pharmacology and Physiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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Davis JS, Allais L, Abdallah C. Caffeine Use in the Anesthetic Management of a Patient With Congenital Central Hypoventilation. Cureus 2022; 14:e26646. [PMID: 35949802 PMCID: PMC9356911 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.26646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is a rare neurological disease affecting the brain’s response to carbon dioxide levels, resulting in dysregulation of respiration. CCHS is characterized by a diminished effort to breathe during sleep despite hypoxia and hypercapnia. Ventilation is adequate during wakeful periods but diminished during sleep. Alterations in ventilation pose a challenge to anesthesiologists in their attempts to wean these patients from ventilatory support. We describe a patient with CCHS and a complicated history of prolonged tracheal intubation, who was treated with intravenous (IV) caffeine and was able to resume adequate spontaneous ventilation and baseline mental status immediately post-procedure.
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Heshmati M, Bruchas MR. Historical and Modern Evidence for the Role of Reward Circuitry in Emergence. Anesthesiology 2022; 136:997-1014. [PMID: 35362070 PMCID: PMC9467375 DOI: 10.1097/aln.0000000000004148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence supports a role for brain reward circuitry in modulating arousal along with emergence from anesthesia. Emergence remains an important frontier for investigation, since no drug exists in clinical practice to initiate rapid and smooth emergence. This review discusses clinical and preclinical evidence indicating a role for two brain regions classically considered integral components of the mesolimbic brain reward circuitry, the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens, in emergence from propofol and volatile anesthesia. Then there is a description of modern systems neuroscience approaches to neural circuit investigations that will help span the large gap between preclinical and clinical investigation with the shared aim of developing therapies to promote rapid emergence without agitation or delirium. This article proposes that neuroscientists include models of whole-brain network activity in future studies to inform the translational value of preclinical investigations and foster productive dialogues with clinician anesthesiologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitra Heshmati
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, and Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Michael R Bruchas
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, and Department of Pharmacology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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Emami S, Panah A, Hakimi SS, Sahmeddini MA. Effect of Caffeine on the Acceleration of Emergence from General Anesthesia with Inhalation Anesthetics in Children Undergoing Inguinal Herniorrhaphy: A Randomized Clinical Trial. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL SCIENCES 2022; 47:107-113. [PMID: 35291434 PMCID: PMC8919303 DOI: 10.30476/ijms.2021.87688.1818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Background Awakening following general anesthesia (GA) is one of the most important concerns of anesthesiologists in their daily work. Previous studies on adult humans found that caffeine could accelerate awakening after anesthesia. This study aimed to determine whether or not caffeine can accelerate awakening after anesthesia in children undergoing inguinal herniorrhaphy under GA. Methods In this randomized clinical trial, we enrolled 18 children undergoing inguinal herniorrhaphy under GA with inhaled anesthetics from June 2019 to September 2019 in the tertiary hospital affiliated with Shiraz University of Medical Sciences (Shiraz, Iran). These children were randomly allocated to two groups. In group A, the children received intravenous caffeine (10 mg/Kg) at the end of the surgery, and in group B, the children received intravenous normal saline at the end of the surgery. The primary outcome was laryngeal mask airway (LMA) removal time at the end of anesthesia. Intra-operative hemodynamic data and side effects such as nausea, vomiting, dysrhythmia, cyanosis, and seizures in the recovery room were recorded and compared between the two groups. We used the independent-samples t test, Fisher's exact test, and repeated measures ANOVA for analyzing the data. P values<0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results There were no significant differences in terms of demographic characteristics and hemodynamic data between the two groups. Furthermore, the time from the induction of anesthesia to laryngeal mask removal was 44.77±7.87 min in the placebo group and 44.55±10.68 min in the caffeine group. Therefore, there was no significant difference between the two groups (P=0.961). Conclusion In children undergoing inguinal herniorrhaphy under GA, 10 mg/Kg of caffeine could not accelerate awakening from GA. However, caffeine did not increase the blood pressure and heart rate in the children, and no significant side effects were observed. Trial Registration Number IRCT20190511043550N1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soodabeh Emami
- Anesthesiology and Critical Care Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ashkan Panah
- Anesthesiology and Critical Care Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Seyed Shaheen Hakimi
- Anesthesiology and Critical Care Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ali Sahmeddini
- Anesthesiology and Critical Care Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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Luppi AI, Spindler LRB, Menon DK, Stamatakis EA. The Inert Brain: Explaining Neural Inertia as Post-anaesthetic Sleep Inertia. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:643871. [PMID: 33737863 PMCID: PMC7960927 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.643871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
"Neural inertia" is the brain's tendency to resist changes in its arousal state: it is manifested as emergence from anaesthesia occurring at lower drug doses than those required for anaesthetic induction, a phenomenon observed across very different species, from invertebrates to mammals. However, the brain is also subject to another form of inertia, familiar to most people: sleep inertia, the feeling of grogginess, confusion and impaired performance that typically follows awakening. Here, we propose a novel account of neural inertia, as the result of sleep inertia taking place after the artificial sleep induced by anaesthetics. We argue that the orexinergic and noradrenergic systems may be key mechanisms for the control of these transition states, with the orexinergic system exerting a stabilising effect through the noradrenergic system. This effect may be reflected at the macroscale in terms of altered functional anticorrelations between default mode and executive control networks of the human brain. The hypothesised link between neural inertia and sleep inertia could explain why different anaesthetic drugs induce different levels of neural inertia, and why elderly individuals and narcoleptic patients are more susceptible to neural inertia. This novel hypothesis also enables us to generate several empirically testable predictions at both the behavioural and neural levels, with potential implications for clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea I. Luppi
- Division of Anaesthesia, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lennart R. B. Spindler
- Division of Anaesthesia, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David K. Menon
- Division of Anaesthesia, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Emmanuel A. Stamatakis
- Division of Anaesthesia, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Luppi AI, Spindler LRB, Menon DK, Stamatakis EA. The Inert Brain: Explaining Neural Inertia as Post-anaesthetic Sleep Inertia. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:643871. [PMID: 33737863 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.64387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
"Neural inertia" is the brain's tendency to resist changes in its arousal state: it is manifested as emergence from anaesthesia occurring at lower drug doses than those required for anaesthetic induction, a phenomenon observed across very different species, from invertebrates to mammals. However, the brain is also subject to another form of inertia, familiar to most people: sleep inertia, the feeling of grogginess, confusion and impaired performance that typically follows awakening. Here, we propose a novel account of neural inertia, as the result of sleep inertia taking place after the artificial sleep induced by anaesthetics. We argue that the orexinergic and noradrenergic systems may be key mechanisms for the control of these transition states, with the orexinergic system exerting a stabilising effect through the noradrenergic system. This effect may be reflected at the macroscale in terms of altered functional anticorrelations between default mode and executive control networks of the human brain. The hypothesised link between neural inertia and sleep inertia could explain why different anaesthetic drugs induce different levels of neural inertia, and why elderly individuals and narcoleptic patients are more susceptible to neural inertia. This novel hypothesis also enables us to generate several empirically testable predictions at both the behavioural and neural levels, with potential implications for clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea I Luppi
- Division of Anaesthesia, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lennart R B Spindler
- Division of Anaesthesia, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David K Menon
- Division of Anaesthesia, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Emmanuel A Stamatakis
- Division of Anaesthesia, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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