Left ventricular myocardial strain and tissue characterization by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in immune checkpoint inhibitor associated cardiotoxicity

Prognostic value of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are increasingly used in the first-line treatment of malignant tumors. There is increasing recognition of their cardiotoxicity and, in particular, their potential to lead to myocarditis. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) can quantify pathological changes, such as myocardial edema and fibrosis. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the evidence for the roles of CMR in predicting prognosis in ICI-associated myocarditis.

Methods

PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science databases were searched until October 2023 for published works investigating the relationship between CMR parameters and adverse events in patients with ICI-associated myocarditis. The analysis included studies reporting the incidence of late gadolinium enhancement (LGE), T1 values, T2 values, and CMR-derived left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Odds ratios (OR) and weighted mean differences (WMD) were combined for binary and continuous data, respectively. Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies.

Results

Five cohort studies were included (average age 65-68 years; 25.4% female). Of these, four studies were included in the meta-analysis of LGE-related findings. Patients with major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) had a higher incidence of LGE compared with patients without MACE (OR = 4.18, 95% CI: 1.72-10.19, p = 0.002). A meta-analysis, incorporating data from two studies, showed that patients who developed MACE exhibited significantly higher T1 value (WMD = 36.16 ms, 95% CI: 21.43-50.89, p < 0.001) and lower LVEF (WMD = - 8.00%, 95% CI: -13.60 to -2.40, p = 0.005). Notably, T2 value (WMD = -0.23 ms, 95% CI: -1.86 to -1.39, p = 0.779) was not associated with MACE in patients with ICI-related myocarditis.

Conclusions

LGE, T1 value, and LVEF measured by CMR imaging have potential prognostic value for long-term adverse events in patients with ICI-related myocarditis.

Cardiac magnetic resonance assessment of cardiac involvement in autoimmune diseases

Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is emerging as the modality of choice to assess early cardiovascular involvement in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases (ARDs) that often has a silent presentation and may lead to changes in management. Besides being reproducible and accurate for functional and volumetric assessment, the strength of CMR is its unique ability to perform myocardial tissue characterization that allows the identification of inflammation, edema, and fibrosis. Several CMR biomarkers may provide prognostic information on the severity and progression of cardiovascular involvement in patients with ARDs. In addition, CMR may add value in assessing treatment response and identification of cardiotoxicity related to therapy with immunomodulators that are commonly used to treat these conditions. In this review, we aim to discuss the following objectives: •Illustrate imaging findings of multi-parametric CMR approach in the diagnosis of cardiovascular involvement in various ARDs;•Review the CMR signatures for risk stratification, prognostication, and guiding treatment strategies in ARDs;•Describe the utility of routine and advanced CMR sequences in identifying cardiotoxicity related to immunomodulators and disease-modifying agents in ARDs;•Discuss the limitations of CMR, recent advances, current research gaps, and potential future developments in the field.

Usefulness of Longitudinal Strain to Assess Cancer Therapy-Related Cardiac Dysfunction and Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Induced Myocarditis

Longitudinal strain (LS) measured by echocardiography has been reported to be useful not only for the diagnosis and risk stratification of various cardiac diseases, but also in cardio-oncology. Most previous studies have been conducted on patients undergoing treatment with anthracyclines and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-targeted therapies. Existing guidelines recommend that global LS (GLS) should be measured before and after the administration of cancer drugs. This recommendation is based on many reports showing that a decline in GLS is indicative of early or mild cancer therapy-related cardiac dysfunction. The main purpose of this article is to provide insight into the importance of LS in patients undergoing cancer treatment and highlight the role of LS evaluation in patients undergoing immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) treatment, which is being used with increasing frequency. Among cancer drug therapies, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have an important place in cancer treatment and are used for the treatment of many types of cancer. Although the efficacy of ICIs in cancer treatment has been reported, immune-related adverse events (irAEs) have also been reported. Among these irAEs, cardiovascular complications, although rare, are recognized as important adverse events that may result in ICI treatment discontinuation. Myocarditis is one severe adverse event associated with ICIs, and it is important to standardize diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to it. Several studies have reported a relationship between LS and cardiac complications associated with ICIs which may contribute to the early diagnosis of ICI-induced cardiac complications.

Role of Biomarkers in the Management of Immune-Checkpoint Inhibitor-Related Myocarditis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-related myocarditis poses a major clinical challenge given its non-specific presentation, rapid progression, and high mortality rate. Here, we review the role of blood-based biomarkers in the clinical management of patients with ICI-related myocarditis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Myocardial injury, its unique pattern, and the co-occurrence with myositis are defining features of ICI-related myocarditis. Non-cardiac biomarkers, specifically creatinine phosphokinase, precedes the symptomatic presentation and is highly sensitive for diagnosing ICI-related myocarditis, making them useful screening biomarkers. Combined elevations in cardiac troponins and non-cardiac biomarkers improve the confidence of an ICI myocarditis diagnosis. High troponin and creatinine phosphokinase levels are strongly associated with severe outcomes. We propose biomarker-based algorithms for the monitoring and diagnosis of ICI-related myocarditis. Biomarkers, such as cardiac troponins and creatine phosphokinase, can be used in combination in the monitoring, diagnosis, and prognostication of patients with ICI-related myocarditis.

Assessment of early anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity using segmental strain of cardiac magnetic resonance compared with global strain and functional parameters: an animal study

Background

The identification of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity holds significant importance in guiding subsequent treatment strategies, and recent research has demonstrated the efficacy of cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) global strain analysis for its diagnosis. On the other hand, it is noteworthy that abnormal global myocardial strain may exhibit a temporal delay due to different cardiac movement in each segment of the left ventricle. To address this concern, this study aims to assess the diagnostic utility of CMR segmental strain analysis as an early detection method for cardiotoxicity.

Methods

A serials of CMR scans were performed in 18 adult males New Zealand rabbits at baseline time (n=15), followed by scans at week 2 (n=15), week 4 (n=9), week 6 (n=6), and week 8 (n=5) after each week's anthracycline injection. Additionally, following each CMR scan, two to three rabbits were euthanized for pathological comparison. Cardiac functional parameters, global peak strain parameters, segmental peak strain parameters of the left ventricle, and the presence of myocardial cells damage were obtained. A mixed linear model was employed to obtain the earliest CMR diagnostic time. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was performed to get the parameter threshold indicative of cardiotoxicity.

Results

The left ventricular ejection fraction decreased at week 8 (P=0.002). There were no statistical differences in global strain throughout the experiment period (P>0.05). Regarding segmental strain analysis, the peak segmental radial strain of the apical lateral wall exhibited a decrease starting from week 2 and reached its lowest point at this week (P=0.011). Conversely, peak segmental circumferential strain of the apical anterior wall showed an increase at week 2 and reached its peak at week 6 (P=0.026). The cutoff strain value by ROC analysis for these two walls were 46.285 and -16.920, with the respective areas under the curve (AUC) 0.593 [specificity =0.267, sensitivity =1.000, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.471-0.777] and 0.764 (specificity =0.733, sensitivity =0.784, 95% CI: 0.511-0.816). Peak segmental longitudinal strain of the apical anterior and apical lateral wall showed relatively delayed changes, occurring in the 4th week (P=0.030 and P=0.048), the cutoff values for these strains were -12.415 and -15.960, with corresponding AUCs of 0.645 (specificity =0.333, sensitivity =0.955, 95% CI: 0.495-0.795) and 0.717 (specificity =0.433, sensitivity =0.955, 95% CI: 0.566-0.902), respectively. Notably, the myocardial injury was also observed at the corresponding periods.

Conclusions

Based on experimental evidence, the peak segmental strain of the apical lateral and anterior wall, as determined by CMR, demonstrated an earlier detection of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity compared to peak global strain and cardiac function.

Evolving field of cardio-oncology

Therapy development for cancer and cardiovascular disease (CVD) to prolong lifespan makes the relationship between these two conditions more complex. Drug interactions in cardiology and oncology are associated with metabolism and drug transportation. Advances in biomarkers and imaging provide novel methods for detecting cardiotoxicity, including cardiac injury and inflammation. The new concept of CVD-related cancer risk is leading to a new direction of progression termed "reverse cardio-oncology."

Impaired left-ventricular global longitudinal strain by feature-tracking cardiac MRI predicts mortality in systemic sclerosis

Impaired left-ventricular (LV) and right-ventricular (RV) cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) strain has been documented in systemic sclerosis (SSc). However, it is unknown whether the CMR strain is predictive of adverse outcomes in SSc. Therefore, we set out to investigate the prognostic value of CMR strain in SSc. Patients with SSc who underwent CMR for clinical indications between 11/2010 and 07/2020 were retrospectively studied. LV and RV strain was evaluated by feature tracking. The association between strain, late gadolinium enhancement (LGE), and survival was evaluated with time to event and Cox-regression analyses. During the study period, 42 patients with SSc (age: 57 ± 14 years, 83% female, 57% limited cutaneous SSc, SSc duration: 7 ± 8 years) underwent CMR. During the median follow-up of 3.6 years, 11 patients died (26%). Compared to surviving patients, patients who died had significantly worse LV GLS (- 8.2 ± 6.2% versus - 12.1 ± 2.9%, p = 0.03), but no difference in LV global radial, circumferential, or RV strain values. Patients within the quartile of most impaired LV GLS (≥ - 12.8%, n = 10) had worse survival when compared to patients with preserved LV GLS (< - 12.8%, n = 32, log-rank p = 0.02), which persisted after controlling for LV cardiac output, LV cardiac index, reduced LV ejection fraction, or presence of LGE. In addition, patients who had both impaired LV GLS and LGE (n = 5) had worse survival than patients with LGE or impaired GLS alone (n = 14) and compared to those without any of these features (n = 17, p = 0.003). In our retrospective cohort of patients with SSc undergoing CMR for clinical indications, LV GLS and LGE were found to be predictive of overall survival.

Global Circumferential and Radial Strain Among Patients With Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Myocarditis

BACKGROUND

Global circumferential strain (GCS) and global radial strain (GRS) are reduced with cytotoxic chemotherapy. There are limited data on the effect of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) myocarditis on GCS and GRS.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to detail the role of GCS and GRS in ICI myocarditis.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, GCS and GRS from 75 cases of patients with ICI myocarditis and 50 ICI-treated patients without myocarditis (controls) were compared. Pre-ICI GCS and GRS were available for 12 cases and 50 controls. Measurements were performed in a core laboratory blinded to group and time. Major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) were defined as a composite of cardiogenic shock, cardiac arrest, complete heart block, and cardiac death.

RESULTS

Cases and controls were similar in age (66 ± 15 years vs 63 ± 12 years; P = 0.20), sex (male: 73% vs 61%; P = 0.20) and cancer type (P = 0.08). Pre-ICI GCS and GRS were also similar (GCS: 22.6% ± 3.4% vs 23.5% ± 3.8%; P = 0.14; GRS: 45.5% ± 6.2% vs 43.6% ± 8.8%; P = 0.24). Overall, 56% (n = 42) of patients with myocarditis presented with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). GCS and GRS were lower in myocarditis compared with on-ICI controls (GCS: 17.5% ± 4.2% vs 23.6% ± 3.0%; P < 0.001; GRS: 28.6% ± 6.7% vs 47.0% ± 7.4%; P < 0.001). Over a median follow-up of 30 days, 28 cardiovascular events occurred. A GCS (HR: 4.9 [95% CI: 1.6-15.0]; P = 0.005) and GRS (HR: 3.9 [95% CI: 1.4-10.8]; P = 0.008) below the median was associated with an increased event rate. In receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curves, GCS (AUC: 0.80 [95% CI: 0.70-0.91]) and GRS (AUC: 0.76 [95% CI: 0.64-0.88]) showed better performance than cardiac troponin T (cTnT) (AUC: 0.70 [95% CI: 0.58-0.82]), LVEF (AUC: 0.69 [95% CI: 0.56-0.81]), and age (AUC: 0.54 [95% CI: 0.40-0.68]). Net reclassification index and integrated discrimination improvement demonstrated incremental prognostic utility of GRS over LVEF (P = 0.04) and GCS over cTnT (P = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

GCS and GRS are lower in ICI myocarditis, and the magnitude of reduction has prognostic significance.

The prognostic value of global myocardium strain by CMR-feature tracking in immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis

OBJECTIVES

Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-associated myocarditis is a potentially fatal complication. Sparse published researches evaluated the prognostic value of cardiovascular magnetic resonance feature tracking (CMR-FT) for ICI-associated myocarditis.

METHODS

In the single-center retrospective study, 52 patients with ICI-associated myocarditis and CMR were included from August 2018 to July 2021. The ICI-associated myocarditis was diagnosed by using the clinical criteria of the European Society of Cardiology guidelines. Major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) were comprised of cardiovascular death, cardiogenic shock, cardiac arrest, and complete heart block.

RESULTS

During a median follow-up of 171 days, 14 (27%) patients developed MACE. For patients with MACE, the global circumferential strain (GCS), global radial strain (GRS), global longitudinal strain (GLS), and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) were significantly worse and native T1 values and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) extent were significantly increased, compared with patients without MACE (p < 0.05). The GLS remained the independent factor associated with a higher risk of MACE (hazard ratio (HR): 2.115; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.379-3.246; p = 0.001) when adjusting for LVEF, LGE extent, age, sex, body mass index, steroid treatment, and prior cardiotoxic chemotherapy or radiation. After adjustment for LVEF, the GLS remained the independent risk factor associated with a higher rate of MACE among patients with a preserved LVEF (HR: 1.358; 95% CI: 1.007-1.830; p = 0.045).

CONCLUSIONS

GLS could provide independent prognostic value over GCS, GRS, traditional CMR features, and clinical features in patients with ICI-associated myocarditis.

KEY POINTS

• The global circumferential strain (GCS), global radial strain (GRS), and global longitudinal strain (GLS) by cardiovascular magnetic resonance feature tracking were significantly impaired in patients with an immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-associated myocarditis. • GLS was still significantly impaired in patients with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction. • The worse GLS was an independent risk factor over GCS, GRS, traditional CMR features, and clinical features for predicting major adverse cardiovascular events in patients with ICI-associated myocarditis.

Applying quantitative CMR parameters for detecting myocardial lesion in immune checkpoint inhibitors-associated myocarditis

PURPOSE

Sparse researches evaluated the quantitative cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) parameters for immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI)-associated myocarditis. We aimed to apply quantitative CMR mappings and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) extent for detecting ICI-associated myocarditis.

METHOD

The retrospective study included patients with ICI-associated myocarditis and CMR examination from August 2018 to August 2021 in our hospital. ICI-associated myocarditis was clinically diagnosed based on the clinical criteria by European Society of Cardiology guidelines. The multiparametric CMR images including T2 mapping and black blood T2-weighted images were used to evaluate myocardial edema. The myocardial edema ratio (ER) ≥ 2.0 was applied for determining myocardial edema on T2-weighted images.

RESULTS

56 patients with ICI-associated myocarditis were included. The global T2 value and native T1 value of patients with ICI-associated myocarditis were significantly higher than the reference ranges in our hospital (p < 0.05). The rate of elevated global T2 value (92%) was significantly higher than those of abnormal native T1 value (73%), ER (52%) and LGE presence (68%) in patients with ICI-associated myocarditis (p < 0.05). The LGE extent and left ventricular ejection fraction of patients with ICI-associated myocarditis were 10.38 ± 9.64% and 56.42 ± 8.54%, respectively. LGE extent inversely correlated with left ventricular ejection fraction (r = -0.38, p = 0.004) but positively correlated with native T1 value (r = 0.28, p < 0.04) and extracellular volume (r = 0.50, p = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

T2 mapping could detect higher rate of patients with ICI-associated myocarditis than native T1 mapping, ER and LGE presence. LGE extent inversely correlated with left ventricular ejection fraction but positively correlated with native T1 value and extracellular volume in patients with ICI-associated myocarditis.

Advances in Multimodality Imaging in Cardio-Oncology: JACC State-of-the-Art Review

The population of patients with cancer is rapidly expanding, and the diagnosis and monitoring of cardiovascular complications greatly rely on imaging. Numerous advances in the field of cardio-oncology and imaging have occurred in recent years. This review presents updated and practical approaches for multimodality cardiovascular imaging in the cardio-oncology patient and provides recommendations for imaging to detect the myriad of adverse cardiovascular effects associated with antineoplastic therapy, such as cardiomyopathy, atherosclerosis, vascular toxicity, myocarditis, valve disease, and cardiac masses. Uniquely, we address the role of cardiovascular imaging in patients with pre-existing cardiomyopathy, pregnant patients, long-term survivors, and populations with limited resources. We also address future avenues of investigation and opportunities for artificial intelligence applications in cardio-oncology imaging. This review provides a uniform practical approach to cardiovascular imaging for patients with cancer.

Cardiac MRI assessment of anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity

The objective of this review article is to discuss how cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging measures left ventricular (LV) function, characterizes tissue, and identifies myocardial fibrosis in patients receiving anthracycline-based chemotherapy (Anth-bC). Specifically, CMR can measure LV ejection fraction (EF), volumes at end-diastole (LVEDV), and end-systole (LVESV), LV strain, and LV mass. Tissue characterization is accomplished through T1/T2-mapping, late gadolinium enhancement (LGE), and CMR perfusion imaging. Despite CMR’s accuracy and efficiency in collecting data about the myocardium, there are challenges that persist while monitoring a cardio-oncology patient undergoing Anth-bC, such as the presence of other cardiovascular risk factors and utility controversies. Furthermore, CMR can be a useful adjunct during cardiopulmonary exercise testing to pinpoint cardiovascular mediated exercise limitations, as well as to assess myocardial microcirculatory damage in patients undergoing Anth-bC.

Echocardiographic and Cardiac MRI Comparison of Longitudinal Strain and Strain Rate in Cancer Patients Treated with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors

Background: Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-induced cardiac side effects in cancer patients are increasingly being recognized and can be fatal. There is no standardized cardiac imaging test to examine the effects of ICIs in myocardial morphology and function. Objective: To study the utility of echocardiography and cardiac MRI in examining regional and global changes arising from ICI-induced myocarditis and cardiomyopathy in high-risk subjects suspected to have developed ICI cardiomyopathy. Methods: We studied eight consecutive patients referred for cardiac MRI (CMR) from a comprehensive cancer center for suspected ICI-induced myocarditis and compared the data with sixteen age-matched controls. Using newly developed strain analysis algorithms, we measured myocardial strain and strain rates using echocardiography and CMR. Then, we compared the mean longitudinal strain and strain rates derived from echocardiography and CMR in the same ICI-treated cohort of patients (n = 8). They underwent both of these imaging studies with images taken 24−48 h apart and followed up prospectively within the same hospital course. Results: All our cases had preserved ejection fraction (EF) > 50%. Echocardiogram showed reduced mean systolic longitudinal strain (LS, %) (ICI: −12.381 ± 4.161; control: −19.761 ± 1.925; p < 0.001), peak systolic strain rate (SRS, s−1) (ICI: −0.597 ± 0.218; control: −0.947 ± 0.135; p = 0.002) and early diastolic strain rate (SRE, s−1) (ICI: 0.562 ± 0.295; control: 1.073 ± 0.228; p = 0.002) in ICI-treated cases. Direct comparison between the echocardiogram vs. CMR obtained within the same hospital course demonstrated strong a correlation of LS scores (r = 0.83, p = 0.012) and SRS scores (r = 0.71, p = 0.048). The Bland−Altman plots showed that 95% of the data points fitted within the ±1.96 SD of the mean difference, suggesting an agreement among these two imaging modalities. Conclusion: In this feasibility cohort study, both echocardiography- and CMR-based strain indices illustrate changes in myocardial contractility and relaxation suggestive of ICI-induced cardiomyopathy. Our data, after validation in a larger cohort, can form the basis of myocardial imaging in cancer patients treated with ICIs.

Cardiac imaging techniques for the assessment of immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced cardiotoxicity and their potential clinical applications

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have encouraged a paradigm shift in the clinical management of patients with cancer. Despite the dramatically improved tumor response and patient prognosis, ICIs have been associated with ICI-related myocarditis, which has a high fatality rate. Cardiac imaging plays a critical role in the assessment of cardiac injury. Echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, and targeted tracer-based cardiac molecular imaging techniques alone or in combination reflect pathophysiology and depict different aspects of lesions at different clinical stages, i.e., they have potentially complementary value. Imaging techniques for identifying ICI-induced cardiotoxicity at the early stage may reduce the incidence of adverse cardiovascular events. Particularly in planned ICI therapy among patients with cancer, improved monitoring approaches to identify patients who are at the highest risk of ICI-related myocarditis may help in refining clinical decisions, allowing treatment to be more accurately targeted toward patients who are most likely to benefit. In this study, we systematically reviewed the studies on cardiac imaging techniques for assessing ICI-induced cardiotoxicity. We elaborated about the potential applications of cardiac imaging techniques for the optimized management of patients with ICI-related myocarditis, including risk stratification, diagnosis, and prognosis.

Cardiovascular Imaging in Cardio-Oncology: The Role of Echocardiography and Cardiac MRI in Modern Cardio-Oncology

Cardiovascular (CV) events are an increasingly common limitation of effective anticancer therapy. Over the last decade imaging has become essential to patients receiving contemporary cancer therapy. Herein we discuss the current state of CV imaging in cardio-oncology. We also provide a practical apparatus for the use of imaging in everyday cardiovascular care of oncology patients to improve outcomes for those at risk for cardiotoxicity, or with established cardiovascular disease. Finally, we consider future directions in the field given the wave of new anticancer therapies.

Role of cardiac MRI in the diagnosis of immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor (ICI)-induced cardiotoxicity is a rare immune-related adverse event (irAE) characterized by a high mortality rate. From a pathological point of view, this condition can result from a series of causes, including binding of ICIs to target molecules on non-lymphocytic cells, cross-reaction of T lymphocytes against tumor antigens with off-target tissues, generation of autoantibodies, and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The diagnosis of ICI-induced cardiotoxicity can be challenging, and cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) represents the diagnostic tool of choice in clinically stable patients with suspected myocarditis. CMR is gaining a central role in diagnosis and monitoring of cardiovascular damage in cancer patients, and it is entering international cardiology and oncology guidelines. In this narrative review, we summarized the clinical aspects of ICI-associated myocarditis, highlighting its radiological aspects and proposing a novel algorithm for the use of CMR.

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Immune Check-Point Inhibitor Myocarditis: A Systematic Review

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are a family of anticancer drugs in which the immune response elicited against the tumor may involve other organs, including the heart. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging is increasingly used in the diagnostic work-up of myocardial inflammation; recently, several studies investigated the use of CMR in patients with ICI-myocarditis (ICI-M). The aim of the present systematic review is to summarize the available evidence on CMR findings in ICI-M. We searched electronic databases for relevant publications; after screening, six studies were selected, including 166 patients from five cohorts, and further 86 patients from a sub-analysis that were targeted for a tissue mapping assessment. CMR revealed mostly preserved left ventricular ejection fraction; edema prevalence ranged from 9% to 60%; late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) prevalence ranged from 23% to 83%. T1 and T2 mapping assessment were performed in 108 and 104 patients, respectively. When available, the comparison of CMR with endomyocardial biopsy revealed partial agreement between techniques and was higher for native T1 mapping amongst imaging biomarkers. The prognostic assessment was inconsistently assessed; CMR variables independently associated with the outcome included decreasing LVEF and increasing native T1. In conclusion, CMR findings in ICI-M include myocardial dysfunction, edema and fibrosis, though less evident than in more classic forms of myocarditis; native T1 mapping retained the higher concordance with EMB and significant prognostic value.

Multimodality Advanced Cardiovascular and Molecular Imaging for Early Detection and Monitoring of Cancer Therapy-Associated Cardiotoxicity and the Role of Artificial Intelligence and Big Data

Cancer mortality has improved due to earlier detection via screening, as well as due to novel cancer therapies such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitions. However, similarly to older cancer therapies such as anthracyclines, these therapies have also been documented to cause cardiotoxic events including cardiomyopathy, myocardial infarction, myocarditis, arrhythmia, hypertension, and thrombosis. Imaging modalities such as echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are critical in monitoring and evaluating for cardiotoxicity from these treatments, as well as in providing information for the assessment of function and wall motion abnormalities. MRI also allows for additional tissue characterization using T1, T2, extracellular volume (ECV), and delayed gadolinium enhancement (DGE) assessment. Furthermore, emerging technologies may be able to assist with these efforts. Nuclear imaging using targeted radiotracers, some of which are already clinically used, may have more specificity and help provide information on the mechanisms of cardiotoxicity, including in anthracycline mediated cardiomyopathy and checkpoint inhibitor myocarditis. Hyperpolarized MRI may be used to evaluate the effects of oncologic therapy on cardiac metabolism. Lastly, artificial intelligence and big data of imaging modalities may help predict and detect early signs of cardiotoxicity and response to cardioprotective medications as well as provide insights on the added value of molecular imaging and correlations with cardiovascular outcomes. In this review, the current imaging modalities used to assess for cardiotoxicity from cancer treatments are discussed, in addition to ongoing research on targeted molecular radiotracers, hyperpolarized MRI, as well as the role of artificial intelligence (AI) and big data in imaging that would help improve the detection and prognostication of cancer-treatment cardiotoxicity.

Defining cardiovascular toxicities of cancer therapies: an International Cardio-Oncology Society (IC-OS) consensus statement

The discipline of Cardio-Oncology has seen tremendous growth over the past decade. It is devoted to the cardiovascular (CV) care of the cancer patient, especially to the mitigation and management of CV complications or toxicities of cancer therapies, which can have profound implications on prognosis. To that effect, many studies have assessed CV toxicities in patients undergoing various types of cancer therapies; however, direct comparisons have proven difficult due to lack of uniformity in CV toxicity endpoints. Similarly, in clinical practice, there can be substantial differences in the understanding of what constitutes CV toxicity, which can lead to significant variation in patient management and outcomes. This document addresses these issues and provides consensus definitions for the most commonly reported CV toxicities, including cardiomyopathy/heart failure and myocarditis, vascular toxicity, and hypertension, as well as arrhythmias and QTc prolongation. The current document reflects a harmonizing review of the current landscape in CV toxicities and the definitions used to define these. This consensus effort aims to provide a structure for definitions of CV toxicity in the clinic and for future research. It will be important to link the definitions outlined herein to outcomes in clinical practice and CV endpoints in clinical trials. It should facilitate communication across various disciplines to improve clinical outcomes for cancer patients with CV diseases.