Fusarium graminearum DICER-like-dependent sRNAs are required for the suppression of host immune genes and full virulence

Double-Stranded RNA Targeting White Mold Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Argonaute 2 for Disease Control via Spray-Induced Gene Silencing

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, the causal agent of white mold infection, is a cosmopolitan fungal pathogen that causes major yield losses in many economically important crops. Spray-induced gene silencing has recently been shown to be a promising alternative method for controlling plant diseases. Based on our prior research, we focused on developing a spray-induced gene silencing approach to control white mold by silencing S. sclerotiorum argonaute 2 (SsAgo2), a crucial part of the fungal small RNA pathway. We compared the lesion size as a result of targeting each ∼500-bp segment of SsAgo2 from the 5' to the 3' end and found that targeting the PIWI/RNaseH domain of SsAgo2 is most effective. External application of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-suppressed white mold infection using either in vitro or in vivo transcripts was determined at the rate of 800 ng/0.2 cm2 area with a downregulation of SsAgo2 from infected leaf tissue confirmed by RT-qPCR. Furthermore, magnesium/iron-layered double hydroxide nanosheets loaded with in vitro- and in vivo-transcribed dsRNA segments significantly reduced the rate of S. sclerotiorum lesion expansion. In vivo-produced dsRNA targeting the PIWI/RNaseH domain of the SsAgo2 transcript showed increased efficacy in reducing the white mold symptoms of S. sclerotiorum when combined with layered double hydroxide nanosheets. This approach is promising to produce a large scale of dsRNA that can be deployed as an environmentally friendly fungicide to manage white mold infections in the field.

Improving RNA-based crop protection through nanotechnology and insights from cross-kingdom RNA trafficking

Spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) is a powerful and eco-friendly method for crop protection. Based off the discovery of RNA uptake ability in many fungal pathogens, the application of exogenous RNAs targeting pathogen/pest genes results in gene silencing and infection inhibition. However, SIGS remains hindered by the rapid degradation of RNA in the environment. As extracellular vesicles are used by plants, animals, and microbes in nature to transport RNAs for cross-kingdom/species RNA interference between hosts and microbes/pests, nanovesicles and other nanoparticles have been used to prevent RNA degradation. Efforts examining the effect of nanoparticles on RNA stability and internalization have identified key attributes that can inform better nanocarrier designs for SIGS. Understanding sRNA biogenesis, cross-kingdom/species RNAi, and how plants and pathogens/pests naturally interact are paramount for the design of SIGS strategies. Here, we focus on nanotechnology advancements for the engineering of innovative RNA-based disease control strategies against eukaryotic pathogens and pests.

A fungal RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is a novel player in plant infection and cross-kingdom RNA interference

Small RNAs act as fungal pathogen effectors that silence host target genes to promote infection, a virulence mechanism termed cross-kingdom RNA interference (RNAi). The essential pathogen factors of cross-kingdom small RNA production are largely unknown. We here characterized the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RDR)1 in the fungal plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea that is required for pathogenicity and cross-kingdom RNAi. B. cinerea bcrdr1 knockout (ko) mutants exhibited reduced pathogenicity and loss of cross-kingdom small RNAs. We developed a "switch-on" GFP reporter to study cross-kingdom RNAi in real-time within the living plant tissue which highlighted that bcrdr1 ko mutants were compromised in cross-kingdom RNAi. Moreover, blocking seven pathogen cross-kingdom small RNAs by expressing a short-tandem target mimic RNA in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana led to reduced infection levels of the fungal pathogen B. cinerea and the oomycete pathogen Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis. These results demonstrate that cross-kingdom RNAi is significant to promote host infection and making pathogen small RNAs an effective target for crop protection.

Fungal small RNAs ride in extracellular vesicles to enter plant cells through clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Small RNAs (sRNAs) of the fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea can enter plant cells and hijack host Argonaute protein 1 (AGO1) to silence host immunity genes. However, the mechanism by which these fungal sRNAs are secreted and enter host cells remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that B. cinerea utilizes extracellular vesicles (EVs) to secrete Bc-sRNAs, which are then internalized by plant cells through clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). The B. cinerea tetraspanin protein, Punchless 1 (BcPLS1), serves as an EV biomarker and plays an essential role in fungal pathogenicity. We observe numerous Arabidopsis clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs) around B. cinerea infection sites and the colocalization of B. cinerea EV marker BcPLS1 and Arabidopsis CLATHRIN LIGHT CHAIN 1, one of the core components of CCV. Meanwhile, BcPLS1 and the B. cinerea-secreted sRNAs are detected in purified CCVs after infection. Arabidopsis knockout mutants and inducible dominant-negative mutants of key components of the CME pathway exhibit increased resistance to B. cinerea infection. Furthermore, Bc-sRNA loading into Arabidopsis AGO1 and host target gene suppression are attenuated in those CME mutants. Together, our results demonstrate that fungi secrete sRNAs via EVs, which then enter host plant cells mainly through CME.

Fungal small RNAs ride in extracellular vesicles to enter plant cells through clathrin-mediated endocytosis

Small RNAs (sRNAs) of the fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea can enter plant cells and hijack host Argonaute protein 1 (AGO1) to silence host immunity genes. However, the mechanism by which these fungal sRNAs are secreted and enter host cells remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that B. cinerea utilizes extracellular vesicles (EVs) to secrete Bc-sRNAs, which are then internalized by plant cells through clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). The B. cinerea tetraspanin protein, Punchless 1 (BcPLS1), serves as an EV biomarker and plays an essential role in fungal pathogenicity. We observe numerous Arabidopsis clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs) around B. cinerea infection sites and the colocalization of B. cinerea EV marker BcPLS1 and Arabidopsis CLATHRIN LIGHT CHAIN 1, one of the core components of CCV. Meanwhile, BcPLS1 and the B. cinerea-secreted sRNAs are detected in purified CCVs after infection. Arabidopsis knockout mutants and inducible dominant-negative mutants of key components of CME pathway exhibit increased resistance to B. cinerea infection. Furthermore, Bc-sRNA loading into Arabidopsis AGO1 and host target gene suppression are attenuated in those CME mutants. Together, our results demonstrate that fungi secrete sRNAs via EVs, which then enter host plant cells mainly through CME.

Extracellular vesicles: cross-organismal RNA trafficking in plants, microbes, and mammalian cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed nanometer-scale particles that transport biological materials such as RNAs, proteins, and metabolites. EVs have been discovered in nearly all kingdoms of life as a form of cellular communication across different cells and between interacting organisms. EV research has primarily focused on EV-mediated intra-organismal transport in mammals, which has led to the characterization of a plethora of EV contents from diverse cell types with distinct and impactful physiological effects. In contrast, research into EV-mediated transport in plants has focused on inter-organismal interactions between plants and interacting microbes. However, the overall molecular content and functions of plant and microbial EVs remain largely unknown. Recent studies into the plant-pathogen interface have demonstrated that plants produce and secrete EVs that transport small RNAs into pathogen cells to silence virulence-related genes. Plant-interacting microbes such as bacteria and fungi also secrete EVs which transport proteins, metabolites, and potentially RNAs into plant cells to enhance their virulence. This review will focus on recent advances in EV-mediated communications in plant-pathogen interactions compared to the current state of knowledge of mammalian EV capabilities and highlight the role of EVs in cross-kingdom RNA interference.

Artificial nanovesicles for dsRNA delivery in spray-induced gene silencing for crop protection

Spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) is an innovative and eco-friendly technology where topical application of pathogen gene-targeting RNAs to plant material can enable disease control. SIGS applications remain limited because of the instability of RNA, which can be rapidly degraded when exposed to various environmental conditions. Inspired by the natural mechanism of cross-kingdom RNAi through extracellular vesicle trafficking, we describe herein the use of artificial nanovesicles (AVs) for RNA encapsulation and control against the fungal pathogen, Botrytis cinerea. AVs were synthesized using three different cationic lipid formulations, DOTAP + PEG, DOTAP and DODMA, and examined for their ability to protect and deliver double stranded RNA (dsRNA). All three formulations enabled dsRNA delivery and uptake by B. cinerea. Further, encapsulating dsRNA in AVs provided strong protection from nuclease degradation and from removal by leaf washing. This improved stability led to prolonged RNAi-mediated protection against B. cinerea both on pre- and post-harvest plant material using AVs. Specifically, the AVs extended the protection duration conferred by dsRNA to 10 days on tomato and grape fruits and to 21 days on grape leaves. The results of this work demonstrate how AVs can be used as a new nanocarrier to overcome RNA instability in SIGS for crop protection.

Artificial nanovesicles for dsRNA delivery in spray induced gene silencing for crop protection

Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS) is an innovative and eco-friendly technology where topical application of pathogen gene-targeting RNAs to plant material can enable disease control. SIGS applications remain limited because of the instability of dsRNA, which can be rapidly degraded when exposed to various environmental conditions. Inspired by the natural mechanism of cross-kingdom RNAi through extracellular vesicle trafficking, we describe herein the use of artificial nanovesicles (AVs) for dsRNA encapsulation and control against the fungal pathogen, Botrytis cinerea. AVs were synthesized using three different cationic lipid formulations, DOTAP + PEG, DOTAP, and DODMA, and examined for their ability to protect and deliver dsRNA. All three formulations enabled dsRNA delivery and uptake by B. cinerea. Further, encapsulating dsRNA in AVs provided strong protection from nuclease degradation and from removal by leaf washing. This improved stability led to prolonged RNAi-mediated protection against B. cinerea both on pre- and post-harvest plant material using AVs. Specifically, the AVs extended the protection duration conferred by dsRNA to 10 days on tomato and grape fruits and to 21 days on grape leaves. The results of this work demonstrate how AVs can be used as a new nanocarrier to overcome dsRNA instability in SIGS for crop protection.

Brachypodium: 20 years as a grass biology model system; the way forward?

It has been 20 years since Brachypodium distachyon was suggested as a model grass species, but ongoing research now encompasses the entire genus. Extensive Brachypodium genome sequencing programmes have provided resources to explore the determinants and drivers of population diversity. This has been accompanied by cytomolecular studies to make Brachypodium a platform to investigate speciation, polyploidisation, perenniality, and various aspects of chromosome and interphase nucleus organisation. The value of Brachypodium as a functional genomic platform has been underscored by the identification of key genes for development, biotic and abiotic stress, and cell wall structure and function. While Brachypodium is relevant to the biofuel industry, its impact goes far beyond that as an intriguing model to study climate change and combinatorial stress.

Distinguishing friends from foes: Can smRNAs modulate plant interactions with beneficial and pathogenic organisms?

In their agro-ecological habitats, plants are constantly challenged by fungal interactions that might be pathogenic or beneficial in nature, and thus, plants need to exhibit appropriate responses to discriminate between them. Such interactions involve sophisticated molecular mechanism of signal exchange, signal transduction and regulation of gene expression. Small RNAs (smRNAs), including the microRNAs (miRNAs), form an essential layer of regulation in plant developmental processes as well as in plant adaptation to environmental stresses, being key for the outcome during plant-microbial interactions. Further, smRNAs are mobile signals that can go across kingdoms from one interacting partner to the other and hence can be used as communication as well as regulatory tools not only by the host plant but also by the colonising fungus. Here, largely with a focus on plant-fungal interactions and miRNAs, we will discuss the role of smRNAs, and how they might help plants to discriminate between friends and foes.

Extracellular vesicles isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley plants exhibit no growth inhibition or gene silencing in Fusarium graminearum

Numerous reports have shown that incorporating a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-expressing transgene into plants or applying dsRNA by spraying it onto their leaves successfully protects them against invading pathogens exploiting the mechanism of RNA interference (RNAi). How dsRNAs or siRNAs are transferred between donor host cells and recipient fungal cells is largely unknown. It is speculated that plant extracellular vesicles (EVs) function as RNA shuttles between plants and their pathogens. Recently, we found that EVs isolated from host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) or spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) plants contained dsRNA-derived siRNAs. In this study, we evaluated whether isolated EVs from dsRNA-sprayed barley (Hordeum vulgare) plants affected the growth of the phytopathogenic ascomycete Fusarium graminearum. Encouraged by our previous finding that dropping barley-derived EVs on F. graminearum cultures caused fungal stress phenotypes, we conducted an in vitro growth experiment in microtiter plates where we co-cultivated F. graminearum with plant EVs isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley leaves. We observed that co-cultivation of F. graminearum macroconidia with barley EVs did not affect fungal growth. Furthermore, plant EVs containing SIGS-derived siRNA appeared not to affect F. graminearum growth and showed no gene silencing activity on F. graminearum CYP51 genes. Based on our findings, we concluded that either the amount of SIGS-derived siRNA was insufficient to induce target gene silencing in F. graminearum, indicating that the role of EVs in SIGS is minor, or that F. graminearum uptake of plant EVs from liquid cultures was inefficient or impossible.

A fungal effector suppresses the nuclear export of AGO1-miRNA complex to promote infection in plants

SignificanceIncreasing evidence demonstrates that small RNAs can serve as trafficking effectors to mediate bidirectional transkingdom RNA interference (RNAi) in interacting organisms, including plant-pathogenic fungi systems. Previous findings demonstrated that plants can send microRNAs (miRNAs) to fungal pathogen Verticillium dahliae to trigger antifungal RNAi. Here we report that V. dahliae is able to secret an effector to the plant nucleus to interfere with the nuclear export of AGO1-miRNA complexes, leading to an inhibition in antifungal RNAi and increased virulence in plants. Thus, we reveal an antagonistic mechanism that can be exploited by fungal pathogens to counteract antifungal RNAi immunity via manipulation of plant small RNA function.