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Yeager C, Tucker M, Gutierrez A, O'Brien C, Sharma M, Fournet V, Dubey JP, Jenkins M, Kniel K, Rosenthal BM. Filters comprised of sand and Zero Valent Iron hold promise as tools to mitigate risk posed by Cyclospora cayetanensis oocysts. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2024; 37:e00243. [PMID: 39301535 PMCID: PMC11409009 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2024.e00243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2024] [Revised: 08/28/2024] [Accepted: 08/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Irrigation water contaminated by human fecal material may elevate the risk of produce contamination with the enteric parasite Cyclospora cayetanensis. Oocysts of C. cayetanensis are resistant to commonly used disinfectants and a method of removing C. cayetanensis from irrigation water would mitigate this risk. We evaluated zero valent iron (ZVI) sand filtration as one such method. We sought to determine if sand filters containing ZVI outperformed those without ZVI. We first evaluated the abundant poultry parasites Eimeria maxima, E. tenella and E. acervulina as surrogates for C. cayetanensis. We determined if a miniaturized gravity fed ZVI-sand filter, scaled to evaluate scarce supplies of C. cayetanensis oocysts, provided useful information about the performance of larger filtration systems. Filters were inoculated with oocysts, rinsed, and the resulting filtrate examined microscopically for oocysts. We performed experiments to measure the effect of varying ZVI concentrations, repeated filter use, simulated agricultural water, and oocyst size and condition. We then compared the performance of mini filters to that of larger, gravity-fed pool filters and found that ZVI-sand filtration was far more effective at removing Eimeria spp. from water when compared to sand filtration, at both scales. Sand mini filters retained 13-54 % of E. acervulina oocysts, and pool filters retained 82 %, but when combined with 50 % (mini filter) or 35 % (pool filter) v/v ZVI, mini filters retained 89-99 % of oocysts and pool filters retained >99 %. The effectiveness of the mini filters increased with increasing ZVI concentration, and the addition of ZVI far outweighed the influence of any other measured variable. We then performed experiments including C. cayetanensis, which provided similar results to those utilizing Eimeria; 59 % of inoculated C. cayetanensis oocysts were retained in sand mini filters, and 97 % in mini filters composed of 35 % v/v ZVI. In sum, ZVI is highly effective in removing oocysts from water and Eimeria is a useful surrogate for C. cayetanensis to assess filtration. ZVI-sand filtration shows promise as a tool to mitigate the risk of C. cayetanensis contamination of irrigation water. Further studies should evaluate the performance of ZVI-sand in pressurized fast filtration systems under a range of field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Yeager
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, North East Area, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - M Tucker
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, North East Area, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - A Gutierrez
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, North East Area, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - C O'Brien
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, North East Area, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - M Sharma
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, North East Area, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - V Fournet
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, North East Area, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - J P Dubey
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, North East Area, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - M Jenkins
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, North East Area, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
| | - K Kniel
- Department of Animal and Food Science, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 29716, USA
| | - B M Rosenthal
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, North East Area, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
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Tucker MS, O’Brien CN, Johnson AN, Dubey JP, Rosenthal BM, Jenkins MC. RNA-Seq of Phenotypically Distinct Eimeria maxima Strains Reveals Coordinated and Contrasting Maturation and Shared Sporogonic Biomarkers with Eimeria acervulina. Pathogens 2023; 13:2. [PMID: 38276148 PMCID: PMC10818985 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Strains of Eimeria maxima, an enteric parasite of poultry, vary in virulence. Here, we performed microscopy and RNA sequencing on oocysts of strains APU-1 (which exhibits more virulence) and APU-2. Although each underwent parallel development, APU-1 initially approached maturation more slowly. Each strain sporulated by hour 36; their gene expression diverged somewhat thereafter. Candidate biomarkers of viability included 58 genes contributing at least 1000 Transcripts Per Million throughout sporulation, such as cation-transporting ATPases and zinc finger domain-containing proteins. Many genes resemble constitutively expressed genes also important to Eimeria acervulina. Throughout sporulation, the expression of only a few genes differed between strains; these included cyclophilin A, EF-1α, and surface antigens (SAGs). Mature and immature oocysts uniquely differentially express certain genes, such as an X-Pro dipeptidyl-peptidase domain-containing protein in immature oocysts and a profilin in mature oocysts. The immature oocysts of each strain expressed more phosphoserine aminotransferase and the mature oocysts expressed more SAGs and microneme proteins. These data illuminate processes influencing sporulation in Eimeria and related genera, such as Cyclospora, and identify biological processes which may differentiate them. Drivers of development and senescence may provide tools to assess the viability of oocysts, which would greatly benefit the poultry industry and food safety applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S. Tucker
- Animal Parasitic Disease Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA (J.P.D.); (B.M.R.); (M.C.J.)
| | - Celia N. O’Brien
- Animal Parasitic Disease Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA (J.P.D.); (B.M.R.); (M.C.J.)
| | - Alexis N. Johnson
- Animal Parasitic Disease Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA (J.P.D.); (B.M.R.); (M.C.J.)
- Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs, Washington, DC 20006, USA
| | - Jitender P. Dubey
- Animal Parasitic Disease Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA (J.P.D.); (B.M.R.); (M.C.J.)
| | - Benjamin M. Rosenthal
- Animal Parasitic Disease Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA (J.P.D.); (B.M.R.); (M.C.J.)
| | - Mark C. Jenkins
- Animal Parasitic Disease Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA (J.P.D.); (B.M.R.); (M.C.J.)
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Almeria S, Chacin-Bonilla L, Maloney JG, Santin M. Cyclospora cayetanensis: A Perspective (2020-2023) with Emphasis on Epidemiology and Detection Methods. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2171. [PMID: 37764015 PMCID: PMC10536660 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11092171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclospora cayetanensis infections are prevalent worldwide, and the parasite has become a major public health and food safety concern. Although important efforts have been dedicated to advance toward preventing and reducing incidences of cyclosporiasis, there are still several knowledge gaps that hamper the implementation of effective measures to prevent the contamination of produce and water with Cyclospora oocysts. Some of these data gaps can be attributed to the fact that access to oocysts is a limiting factor in C. cayetanensis research. There are no animal models or in vivo or in vitro culture systems to propagate the oocysts needed to facilitate C. cayetanensis research. Thus, researchers must rely upon limited supplies of oocysts obtained from naturally infected human patients considerably restricting what can be learnt about this parasite. Despite the limited supply of C. cayetanensis oocysts, several important advances have happened in the past 3 years. Great progress has been made in the Cyclospora field in the areas of molecular characterization of strains and species, generation of genomes, and development of novel detection methods. This comprehensive perspective summarizes research published from 2020 to 2023 and evaluates what we have learnt and identifies those aspects in which further research is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Almeria
- Center for Food Safety and Nutrition (CFSAN), Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Office of Applied Research and Safety Assessment (OARSA), Division of Virulence Assessment, Laurel, MD 20708, USA
| | | | - Jenny G. Maloney
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA;
| | - Monica Santin
- Environmental Microbial and Food Safety Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA;
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Tucker MS, Khan A, Jenkins MC, Dubey JP, Rosenthal BM. Hastening Progress in Cyclospora Requires Studying Eimeria Surrogates. Microorganisms 2022; 10:1977. [PMID: 36296256 PMCID: PMC9608778 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10101977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclospora cayetanensis is an enigmatic human parasite that sickens thousands of people worldwide. The scarcity of research material and lack of any animal model or cell culture system slows research, denying the produce industry, epidemiologists, and regulatory agencies of tools that might aid diagnosis, risk assessment, and risk abatement. Fortunately, related species offer a strong foundation when used as surrogates to study parasites of this type. Species of Eimeria lend themselves especially well as surrogates for C. cayetanensis. Those Eimeria that infect poultry can be produced in abundance, share many biological features with Cyclospora, pose no risk to the health of researchers, and can be studied in their natural hosts. Here, we overview the actual and potential uses of such surrogates to advance understanding of C. cayetanensis biology, diagnostics, control, and genomics, focusing on opportunities to improve prevention, surveillance, risk assessment, and risk reduction. Studying Eimeria surrogates accelerates progress, closing important research gaps and refining promising tools for producers and food safety regulators to monitor and ameliorate the food safety risks imposed by this emerging, enigmatic parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Benjamin M. Rosenthal
- Animal Parasitic Disease Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA
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Cloning and expression of a cDNA coding for Eimeria acervulina 25 kDa protein associated with oocyst and sporocyst walls. Vet Parasitol 2022; 309:109762. [PMID: 35868164 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2022.109762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to characterize a gene named EAH 00033530 identified by RNAseq analysis of sporulating Eimeria acervulina oocysts and its encoded protein. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis revealed peak expression of EAH 00033530 mRNA early (3-6 h) in sporulation followed by downregulation at 12-24 h. The gene for EAH 00033530 was expressed in Escherichia coli as a 70 kDa polyHis fusion protein (rEAH 00033530). Antisera prepared against rEAH 00033530 protein identified in immunoblotting a native 25 kDa E. acervulina protein (Ea25) that was present in oocyst-sporocyst extracts after treatment with the reducing agent DTT. Immunofluorescence staining using anti-rEa25 localized the protein to both E. acervulina oocyst and sporocyst walls, but not to sporozoites. The protein may be produced during in vivo oocyst development because immunostaining of duodenal tissue from E. acervulina-infected chickens revealed oocyst wall expression. As observed by ELISA, rEa25 protein appears to elicit a humoral immune response in chickens infected with non-irradiated or radiation-attenuated E. acervulina oocysts.
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Dubey JP, Khan A, Rosenthal BM. Life Cycle and Transmission of Cyclospora cayetanensis: Knowns and Unknowns. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10010118. [PMID: 35056567 PMCID: PMC8779055 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10010118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Although infections with Cyclospora cayetanensis are prevalent worldwide, many aspects of this parasite’s life cycle and transmission remain unknown. Humans are the only known hosts of this parasite. Existing information on its endogenous development has been derived from histological examination of only a few biopsy specimens. Its asexual and sexual stages occur in biliary-intestinal epithelium. In histological sections, its stages are less than 10 μm, making definitive identification difficult. Asexual (schizonts) and sexual (gamonts) are located in epithelial cells. Male microgamonts have two flagella; female macrogametes contain wall-forming bodies. Oocysts are excreted in feces unsporulated. Sporulation occurs in the environment, but there are many unanswered questions concerning dissemination and survival of C. cayetanensis oocysts. Biologically and phylogenetically, C. cayetanensis closely resembles Eimeria spp. that parastize chickens; among them, E. acervulina most closely resembles C. cayetanensis in size. Here, we review known and unknown aspects of its life cycle and transmission and discuss the appropriateness of surrogates best capable of hastening progress in understanding its biology and developing mitigating strategies.
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