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Doratt BM, Malherbe DC, Messaoudi I. Transcriptional and functional remodeling of lung-resident T cells and macrophages by Simian varicella virus infection. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1408212. [PMID: 38887303 PMCID: PMC11180879 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1408212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella and can reactivate as herpes zoster, and both diseases present a significant burden worldwide. However, the mechanisms by which VZV establishes latency in the sensory ganglia and disseminates to these sites remain unclear. Methods We combined a single-cell sequencing approach and a well-established rhesus macaque experimental model using Simian varicella virus (SVV), which recapitulates the VZV infection in humans, to define the acute immune response to SVV in the lung as well as compare the transcriptome of infected and bystander lung-resident T cells and macrophages. Results and discussion Our analysis showed a decrease in the frequency of alveolar macrophages concomitant with an increase in that of infiltrating macrophages expressing antiviral genes as well as proliferating T cells, effector CD8 T cells, and T cells expressing granzyme A (GZMA) shortly after infection. Moreover, infected T cells harbored higher numbers of viral transcripts compared to infected macrophages. Furthermore, genes associated with cellular metabolism (glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation) showed differential expression in infected cells, suggesting adaptations to support viral replication. Overall, these data suggest that SVV infection remodels the transcriptome of bystander and infected lung-resident T cells and macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
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2
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Jankeel A, Coimbra-Ibraim I, Messaoudi I. Simian Varicella Virus: Molecular Virology and Mechanisms of Pathogenesis. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2023; 438:163-188. [PMID: 34669041 PMCID: PMC9577235 DOI: 10.1007/82_2021_241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Simian varicella virus (SVV) was first isolated in 1966 from African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) imported from Nairobi, Kenya, to the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine in the United Kingdom (UK) (Clarkson et al., Arch Gesamte Virusforsch 22:219-234, 1967). SVV infection caused severe disease that resulted in a 56% case fatality rate (CFR) in the imported animals within 48 h of the appearance of a varicella-like rash (Clarkson et al., Arch Gesamte Virusforsch 22:219-234, 1967; Hemme et al., Am J Trop Med Hyg 94:1095-1099, 2016). The deceased animals presented with fever, widespread vesicular rash, and multiple hemorrhagic foci throughout the lungs, liver, and spleen (Clarkson et al., Arch Gesamte Virusforsch 22:219-234, 1967). This outbreak was quickly followed by a second outbreak in 47 patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) imported from Chad and Nigeria by Glaxo Laboratories (London, England, UK), which quickly spread within the facility (McCarthy et al., Lancet 2:856-857, 1968).
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen Jankeel
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Izabela Coimbra-Ibraim
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA,Institute for Immunology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA,Center for Virus Research, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA,To whom correspondence should be addressed: Ilhem Messaoudi, PhD, Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, 2400 Biological Sciences III, Irvine, CA 92697, Phone: 949-824-3078,
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3
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A Guide to Preclinical Models of Zoster-Associated Pain and Postherpetic Neuralgia. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2022; 438:189-221. [PMID: 34524508 DOI: 10.1007/82_2021_240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Reactivation of latent varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes herpes zoster (HZ), which is commonly accompanied by acute pain and pruritus over the time course of a zosteriform rash. Although the rash and associated pain are self-limiting, a considerable fraction of HZ cases will subsequently develop debilitating chronic pain states termed postherpetic neuralgia (PHN). How VZV causes acute pain and the mechanisms underlying the transition to PHN are far from clear. The human-specific nature of VZV has made in vivo modeling of pain following reactivation difficult to study because no single animal can reproduce reactivated VZV disease as observed in the clinic. Investigations of VZV pathogenesis following primary infection have benefited greatly from human tissues harbored in immune-deficient mice, but modeling of acute and chronic pain requires an intact nervous system with the capability of transmitting ascending and descending sensory signals. Several groups have found that subcutaneous VZV inoculation of the rat induces prolonged and measurable changes in nociceptive behavior, indicating sensitivity that partially mimics the development of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia seen in HZ and PHN patients. Although it is not a model of reactivation, the rat is beginning to inform how VZV infection can evoke a pain response and induce long-lasting alterations to nociception. In this review, we will summarize the rat pain models from a practical perspective and discuss avenues that have opened for testing of novel treatments for both zoster-associated pain and chronic PHN conditions, which remain in critical need of effective therapies.
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Simian Varicella Virus Pathogenesis in Skin during Varicella and Zoster. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061167. [PMID: 35746639 PMCID: PMC9227806 DOI: 10.3390/v14061167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary simian varicella virus (SVV) infection and reactivation in nonhuman primates is a valuable animal model in the study of varicella zoster virus disease [varicella (chickenpox) and herpes zoster (shingles)]. To understand SVV pathogenesis in skin, we inoculated 10 rhesus macaques with SVV, resulting in varicella rash. After the establishment of latency, eight of the monkeys were immunosuppressed using tacrolimus with or without irradiation and prednisone and two monkeys were not immunosuppressed. Zoster rash developed in all immunosuppressed monkeys and in one non-immunosuppressed monkey. Five monkeys had recurrent zoster. During varicella and zoster, SVV DNA in skin scrapings ranged from 50 to 107 copies/100 ng of total DNA and 2–127 copies/100 ng of total DNA, respectively. Detection of SVV DNA in blood during varicella was more frequent and abundant compared to that of zoster. During varicella and zoster, SVV antigens colocalized with neurons expressing β-III tubulin in epidermis, hair follicles, and sweat glands, suggesting axonal transport of the virus. Together, we have demonstrated that both SVV DNA and antigens can be detected in skin lesions during varicella and zoster, providing the basis for further studies on SVV skin pathogenesis, including immune responses and mechanisms of peripheral spread.
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5
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Braspenning SE, Verjans GMGM, Mehraban T, Messaoudi I, Depledge DP, Ouwendijk WJD. The architecture of the simian varicella virus transcriptome. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1010084. [PMID: 34807956 PMCID: PMC8648126 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary infection with varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella and the establishment of lifelong latency in sensory ganglion neurons. In one-third of infected individuals VZV reactivates from latency to cause herpes zoster, often complicated by difficult-to-treat chronic pain. Experimental infection of non-human primates with simian varicella virus (SVV) recapitulates most features of human VZV disease, thereby providing the opportunity to study the pathogenesis of varicella and herpes zoster in vivo. However, compared to VZV, the transcriptome and the full coding potential of SVV remains incompletely understood. Here, we performed nanopore direct RNA sequencing to annotate the SVV transcriptome in lytically SVV-infected African green monkey (AGM) and rhesus macaque (RM) kidney epithelial cells. We refined structures of canonical SVV transcripts and uncovered numerous RNA isoforms, splicing events, fusion transcripts and non-coding RNAs, mostly unique to SVV. We verified the expression of canonical and newly identified SVV transcripts in vivo, using lung samples from acutely SVV-infected cynomolgus macaques. Expression of selected transcript isoforms, including those located in the unique left-end of the SVV genome, was confirmed by reverse transcription PCR. Finally, we performed detailed characterization of the SVV homologue of the VZV latency-associated transcript (VLT), located antisense to ORF61. Analogous to VZV VLT, SVV VLT is multiply spliced and numerous isoforms are generated using alternative transcription start sites and extensive splicing. Conversely, low level expression of a single spliced SVV VLT isoform defines in vivo latency. Notably, the genomic location of VLT core exons is highly conserved between SVV and VZV. This work thus highlights the complexity of lytic SVV gene expression and provides new insights into the molecular biology underlying lytic and latent SVV infection. The identification of the SVV VLT homolog further underlines the value of the SVV non-human primate model to develop new strategies for prevention of herpes zoster. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV)–a ubiquitous human pathogen–infects most individuals during childhood, leading to chickenpox, after which the virus persists in the host for decades. Later in life, VZV reactivates to cause shingles, frequently associated with difficult-to-treat chronic pain. Our limited understanding of the viral life-cycle hampers the development of more effective treatment options. Simian varicella virus (SVV) is the non-human primate homologue of VZV and causes a natural disease in Old World monkeys with clinical, pathological, and immunological features resembling human VZV infection. However, it is unclear how similar both viruses are at the molecular level. Here, we have revisited the genome-wide transcriptional activity of SVV during lytic infection of kidney epithelial cells derived from two non-human primate species and validated expression of newly identified viral transcripts in lung tissue from SVV-infected animals. Together, this has led to the identification of numerous alternative RNA isoforms, mostly unique to SVV, and some of which may have functional implications for the virus. Notably, we defined the SVV latency-associated transcript, which is highly similar to its VZV counterpart. In conclusion, our study shows the value of understanding the molecular biology of a given animal model and identifies potentially conserved mechanism of latency.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tamana Mehraban
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Daniel P. Depledge
- Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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6
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Reinert LS, Rashidi AS, Tran DN, Katzilieris-Petras G, Hvidt AK, Gohr M, Fruhwürth S, Bodda C, Thomsen MK, Vendelbo MH, Khan AR, Hansen B, Bergström P, Agholme L, Mogensen TH, Christensen MH, Nyengaard JR, Sen GC, Zetterberg H, Verjans GM, Paludan SR. Brain immune cells undergo cGAS/STING-dependent apoptosis during herpes simplex virus type 1 infection to limit type I IFN production. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:136824. [PMID: 32990676 DOI: 10.1172/jci136824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Protection of the brain from viral infections involves the type I IFN (IFN-I) system, defects in which render humans susceptible to herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE). However, excessive cerebral IFN-I levels lead to pathologies, suggesting the need for tight regulation of responses. Based on data from mouse models, human HSE cases, and primary cell culture systems, we showed that microglia and other immune cells undergo apoptosis in the HSV-1-infected brain through a mechanism dependent on the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase/stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS/STING) pathway, but independent of IFN-I. HSV-1 infection of microglia induced cGAS-dependent apoptosis at high viral doses, whereas lower viral doses led to IFN-I responses. Importantly, inhibition of caspase activity prevented microglial cell death and augmented IFN-I responses. Accordingly, HSV-1-infected organotypic brain slices or mice treated with a caspase inhibitor exhibited lower viral load and an improved infection outcome. Collectively, we identify an activation-induced apoptosis program in brain immune cells that downmodulates local immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Line S Reinert
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Ahmad S Rashidi
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Diana N Tran
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Astrid K Hvidt
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Mette Gohr
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Stefanie Fruhwürth
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | | | - Mikkel H Vendelbo
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Nuclear Medicine & PET Centre, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
| | - Ahmad R Khan
- Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Centre of Biomedical Research, SGPGI Campus, Lucknow, India
| | - Brian Hansen
- Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Petra Bergström
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Germany
| | - Lotta Agholme
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Jens R Nyengaard
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Ganes C Sen
- Department of Immunology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden.,Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom.,UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Søren R Paludan
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden
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7
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Ouwendijk WJD, Depledge DP, Rajbhandari L, Lenac Rovis T, Jonjic S, Breuer J, Venkatesan A, Verjans GMGM, Sadaoka T. Varicella-zoster virus VLT-ORF63 fusion transcript induces broad viral gene expression during reactivation from neuronal latency. Nat Commun 2020; 11:6324. [PMID: 33303747 PMCID: PMC7730162 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20031-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) establishes lifelong neuronal latency in most humans world-wide, reactivating in one-third to cause herpes zoster and occasionally chronic pain. How VZV establishes, maintains and reactivates from latency is largely unknown. VZV transcription during latency is restricted to the latency-associated transcript (VLT) and RNA 63 (encoding ORF63) in naturally VZV-infected human trigeminal ganglia (TG). While significantly more abundant, VLT levels positively correlated with RNA 63 suggesting co-regulated transcription during latency. Here, we identify VLT-ORF63 fusion transcripts and confirm VLT-ORF63, but not RNA 63, expression in human TG neurons. During in vitro latency, VLT is transcribed, whereas VLT-ORF63 expression is induced by reactivation stimuli. One isoform of VLT-ORF63, encoding a fusion protein combining VLT and ORF63 proteins, induces broad viral gene transcription. Collectively, our findings show that VZV expresses a unique set of VLT-ORF63 transcripts, potentially involved in the transition from latency to lytic VZV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner J D Ouwendijk
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel P Depledge
- Department of Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Labchan Rajbhandari
- Division of Neuroimmunology and Neuroinfectious Diseases, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe St., Meyer 6-113, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Tihana Lenac Rovis
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, 51000, Croatia
| | - Stipan Jonjic
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, 51000, Croatia
| | - Judith Breuer
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Arun Venkatesan
- Division of Neuroimmunology and Neuroinfectious Diseases, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe St., Meyer 6-113, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Georges M G M Verjans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, 3015 CN, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tomohiko Sadaoka
- Division of Clinical Virology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-1 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe, 650-0017, Japan.
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8
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Ouwendijk WJ, van den Ham HJ, Delany MW, van Kampen JJ, van Nierop GP, Mehraban T, Zaaraoui-Boutahar F, van IJcken WF, van den Brand JM, de Vries RD, Andeweg AC, Verjans GM. Alveolar barrier disruption in varicella pneumonia is associated with neutrophil extracellular trap formation. JCI Insight 2020; 5:138900. [PMID: 33021967 PMCID: PMC7710321 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.138900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection in adults is often complicated by severe pneumonia, which is difficult to treat and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Here, the simian varicella virus (SVV) nonhuman primate (NHP) model was used to investigate the pathogenesis of varicella pneumonia. SVV infection resulted in transient fever, viremia, and robust virus replication in alveolar pneumocytes and bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue. Clearance of infectious virus from lungs coincided with robust innate immune responses, leading to recruitment of inflammatory cells, mainly neutrophils and lymphocytes, and finally severe acute lung injury. SVV infection caused neutrophil activation and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in vitro and in vivo. Notably, NETs were also detected in lung and blood specimens of varicella pneumonia patients. Lung pathology in the SVV NHP model was associated with dysregulated expression of alveolar epithelial cell tight junction proteins (claudin-2, claudin-10, and claudin-18) and alveolar endothelial adherens junction protein VE-cadherin. Importantly, factors released by activated neutrophils, including NETs, were sufficient to reduce claudin-18 and VE-cadherin expression in NHP lung slice cultures. Collectively, the data indicate that alveolar barrier disruption in varicella pneumonia is associated with NET formation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Henk-Jan van den Ham
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands.,ENPICOM BV, 's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands
| | - Mark W Delany
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Tamana Mehraban
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Judith Ma van den Brand
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Rory D de Vries
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Arno C Andeweg
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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Measles skin rash: Infection of lymphoid and myeloid cells in the dermis precedes viral dissemination to the epidermis. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008253. [PMID: 33031460 PMCID: PMC7575069 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Measles is characterized by fever and a maculopapular skin rash, which is accompanied by immune clearance of measles virus (MV)-infected cells. Histopathological analyses of skin biopsies from humans and non-human primates (NHPs) with measles rash have identified MV-infected keratinocytes and mononuclear cells in the epidermis, around hair follicles and near sebaceous glands. Here, we address the pathogenesis of measles skin rash by combining data from experimentally infected NHPs, ex vivo infection of human skin sheets and in vitro infection of primary human keratinocytes. Analysis of NHP skin samples collected at different time points following MV inoculation demonstrated that infection in the skin precedes onset of rash by several days. MV infection was detected in lymphoid and myeloid cells in the dermis before dissemination to the epidermal leukocytes and keratinocytes. These data were in good concordance with ex vivo MV infections of human skin sheets, in which dermal cells were more targeted than the epidermal cells. To address viral dissemination to the epidermis and to determine whether the dissemination is receptor-dependent, we performed experimental infections of primary keratinocytes collected from healthy donors. These experiments demonstrated that MV infection of keratinocytes is mainly nectin-4-dependent, and differentiated keratinocytes, which express higher levels of nectin-4, are more susceptible to MV infection than proliferating keratinocytes. Based on these data, we propose a model to explain measles skin rash: migrating MV-infected lymphocytes initiate the infection of dermal skin-resident CD150+ immune cells. The infection is subsequently disseminated from the dermal papillae to nectin-4+ keratinocytes in the basal epidermis. Lateral spread of MV infection is observed in the superficial epidermis, most likely due to the higher level of nectin-4 expression on differentiated keratinocytes. Finally, MV-infected cells are cleared by infiltrating immune cells, causing hyperemia and edema, which give the appearance of morbilliform skin rash. Several viral infections are associated with skin rash, including parvovirus B19, human herpesvirus type 6, dengue virus and rubella virus. However, the archetype virus infection that leads to skin rash is measles. Although all of these viral exanthemata often appear similar, their pathogenesis is different. In the case of measles, the appearance of skin rash is a sign that the immune system is clearing MV-infected cells from the skin. How the virus reaches the skin and is locally disseminated remains unknown. Here, we combine observations and expertise from pathologists, dermatologists, virologists and immunologists to delineate the pathogenesis of measles skin rash. We show that MV infection of dermal myeloid and lymphoid cells precedes viral dissemination to the epidermal leukocytes and keratinocytes. We speculate that immune-mediated clearance of these infected cells results in hyperemia and edema, explaining the redness of the skin and the slightly elevated spots of the morbilliform rash.
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10
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Braspenning SE, Sadaoka T, Breuer J, Verjans GMGM, Ouwendijk WJD, Depledge DP. Decoding the Architecture of the Varicella-Zoster Virus Transcriptome. mBio 2020; 11:e01568-20. [PMID: 33024035 PMCID: PMC7542360 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01568-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), a double-stranded DNA virus, causes varicella, establishes lifelong latency in ganglionic neurons, and reactivates later in life to cause herpes zoster, commonly associated with chronic pain. The VZV genome is densely packed and produces multitudes of overlapping transcripts deriving from both strands. While 71 distinct open reading frames (ORFs) have thus far been experimentally defined, the full coding potential of VZV remains unknown. Here, we integrated multiple short-read RNA sequencing approaches with long-read direct RNA sequencing on RNA isolated from VZV-infected cells to provide a comprehensive reannotation of the lytic VZV transcriptome architecture. Through precise mapping of transcription start sites, splice junctions, and polyadenylation sites, we identified 136 distinct polyadenylated VZV RNAs that encode canonical ORFs, noncanonical ORFs, and ORF fusions, as well as putative noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs). Furthermore, we determined the kinetic class of all VZV transcripts and observed, unexpectedly, that transcripts encoding the ORF62 protein, previously designated Immediate-Early, were expressed with Late kinetics. Our work showcases the complexity of the VZV transcriptome and provides a comprehensive resource that will facilitate future functional studies of coding RNAs, ncRNAs, and the biological mechanisms underlying the regulation of viral transcription and translation during lytic VZV infection.IMPORTANCE Transcription from herpesviral genomes, executed by the host RNA polymerase II and regulated by viral proteins, results in coordinated viral gene expression to efficiently produce infectious progeny. However, the complete coding potential and regulation of viral gene expression remain ill-defined for the human alphaherpesvirus varicella-zoster virus (VZV), causative agent of both varicella and herpes zoster. Here, we present a comprehensive overview of the VZV transcriptome and the kinetic class of all identified viral transcripts, using two virus strains and two biologically relevant cell types. Additionally, our data provide an overview of how VZV diversifies its transcription from one of the smallest herpesviral genomes. Unexpectedly, the transcript encoding the major viral transactivator protein (pORF62) was expressed with Late kinetics, whereas orthologous transcripts in other alphaherpesviruses are typically expressed during the immediate early phase. Therefore, our work both establishes the architecture of the VZV transcriptome and provides insight into regulation of alphaherpesvirus gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tomohiko Sadaoka
- Division of Clinical Virology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan
| | - Judith Breuer
- Department of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Daniel P Depledge
- Department of Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
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11
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Abstract
Purpose of review Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a highly contagious, neurotropic alpha herpes virus that causes varicella (chickenpox). VZV establishes lifelong latency in the sensory ganglia from which it can reactivate to induce herpes zoster (HZ), a painful disease that primarily affects older individuals and those who are immune-suppressed. Given that VZV infection is highly specific to humans, developing a reliable in vivo model that recapitulates the hallmarks of VZV infection has been challenging. Simian Varicella Virus (SVV) infection in nonhuman primates reproduces the cardinal features of VZV infections in humans and allows the study of varicella virus pathogenesis in the natural host. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge about genomic and virion structure of varicelloviruses as well as viral pathogenesis and antiviral immune responses during acute infection, latency and reactivation. We also examine the immune evasion mechanisms developed by varicelloviruses to escape the host immune responses and the current vaccines available for protecting individuals against chickenpox and herpes zoster. Recent findings Data from recent studies suggest that infected T cells are important for viral dissemination to the cutaneous sites of infection as well as site of latency and that a viral latency-associated transcript might play a role in the transition from lytic infection to latency and then reactivation. Summary Recent studies have provided exciting insights into mechanisms of varicelloviruses pathogenesis such as the critical role of T cells in VZV/SVV dissemination from the respiratory mucosa to the skin and the sensory ganglia; the ability of VZV/SVV to interfere with host defense; and the identification of VLT transcripts in latently infected ganglia. However, our understanding of these phenomena remains poorly understood. Therefore, it is critical that we continue to investigate host-pathogen interactions during varicelloviruses infection. These studies will lead to a deeper understanding of VZV biology as well as novel aspects of cell biology.
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Gerada C, Campbell TM, Kennedy JJ, McSharry BP, Steain M, Slobedman B, Abendroth A. Manipulation of the Innate Immune Response by Varicella Zoster Virus. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1. [PMID: 32038653 PMCID: PMC6992605 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is the causative agent of chickenpox (varicella) and shingles (herpes zoster). VZV and other members of the herpesvirus family are distinguished by their ability to establish a latent infection, with the potential to reactivate and spread virus to other susceptible individuals. This lifelong relationship continually subjects VZV to the host immune system and as such VZV has evolved a plethora of strategies to evade and manipulate the immune response. This review will focus on our current understanding of the innate anti-viral control mechanisms faced by VZV. We will also discuss the diverse array of strategies employed by VZV to regulate these innate immune responses and highlight new knowledge on the interactions between VZV and human innate immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea Gerada
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Tessa M Campbell
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jarrod J Kennedy
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Brian P McSharry
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Megan Steain
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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13
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Current In Vivo Models of Varicella-Zoster Virus Neurotropism. Viruses 2019; 11:v11060502. [PMID: 31159224 PMCID: PMC6631480 DOI: 10.3390/v11060502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), an exclusively human herpesvirus, causes chickenpox and establishes a latent infection in ganglia, reactivating decades later to produce zoster and associated neurological complications. An understanding of VZV neurotropism in humans has long been hampered by the lack of an adequate animal model. For example, experimental inoculation of VZV in small animals including guinea pigs and cotton rats results in the infection of ganglia but not a rash. The severe combined immune deficient human (SCID-hu) model allows the study of VZV neurotropism for human neural sub-populations. Simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of rhesus macaques (RM) closely resembles both human primary VZV infection and reactivation, with analyses at early times after infection providing valuable information about the extent of viral replication and the host immune responses. Indeed, a critical role for CD4 T-cell immunity during acute SVV infection as well as reactivation has emerged based on studies using RM. Herein we discuss the results of efforts from different groups to establish an animal model of VZV neurotropism.
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Traina-Dorge V, Mehta S, Rooney B, Crucian B, Doyle-Meyers L, Das A, Coleman C, Nagel M, Mahalingam R. Simian Varicella Virus DNA in Saliva and Buccal Cells After Experimental Acute Infection in Rhesus Macaques. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1009. [PMID: 31143167 PMCID: PMC6520666 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of non-human primates is the counterpart of varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection in humans. To develop non-invasive methods of assessing SVV infection, we tested for the presence of SVV DNA in saliva, as has been documented in human VZV infection, and in buccal cells to determine whether epithelial cells might provide a more reliable source of material for analysis. Five rhesus macaques intratracheally inoculated with SVV all developed varicella with viremia and macular-papular skin rash in 1-2 weeks, which resolved followed by establishment of latency. DNA extracted from longitudinal blood peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), saliva and buccal samples collected during acute infection and establishment of latency were analyzed by real-time qPCR. After intratracheal inoculation, viremia was observed, with peak levels of 101-102 copies of SVV DNA in 100 ng of PBMC DNA at 4 and 7 days post inoculation (dpi), which then decreased at 9-56 dpi. In saliva and buccal cells at 7 dpi, 101-104 copies and 101-105 copies of SVV DNA in 100 ng of cellular DNA, respectively, were detected in all the five monkeys. At 9 dpi, saliva samples from only two of the five monkeys contained SVV DNA at 102-103 copies/100 ng of saliva DNA, while buccal cells from all five monkeys showed 100-103 copies of SVV DNA/100 ng of buccal cell DNA. Similar to viremia, SVV DNA in saliva and buccal cells at 11-56 dpi was lower, suggesting clearance of viral shedding. SVV DNA levels were generally higher in buccal cells than in saliva. Our findings indicate that SVV shedding into the oral cavity parallels acute SVV infection and underscore the relevance of both saliva and buccal cell samples to monitor acute varicella virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicki Traina-Dorge
- Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, LA, United States
| | - Satish Mehta
- Jes Tech, Houston, TX, United States.,KBR wyle Laboratories, Houston, TX, United States
| | | | - Brian Crucian
- Johnson Space Center, NASA, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Lara Doyle-Meyers
- Division of Veterinary Medicine, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, LA, United States
| | - Arpita Das
- Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, LA, United States
| | - Colin Coleman
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Maria Nagel
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
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15
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Jones D, Como CN, Jing L, Blackmon A, Neff CP, Krueger O, Bubak AN, Palmer BE, Koelle DM, Nagel MA. Varicella zoster virus productively infects human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to modulate expression of immunoinhibitory proteins and blocking PD-L1 enhances virus-specific CD8+ T cell effector function. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007650. [PMID: 30870532 PMCID: PMC6435197 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a lymphotropic alpha-herpesvirinae subfamily member that produces varicella on primary infection and causes zoster, vascular disease and vision loss upon reactivation from latency. VZV-infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) disseminate virus to distal organs to produce clinical disease. To assess immune evasion strategies elicited by VZV that may contribute to dissemination of infection, human PBMCs and VZV-specific CD8+ T cells (V-CD8+) were mock- or VZV-infected and analyzed for immunoinhibitory protein PD-1, PD-L1, PD-L2, CTLA-4, LAG-3 and TIM-3 expression using flow cytometry. All VZV-infected PBMCs (monocytes, NK, NKT, B cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells) and V-CD8+ showed significant elevations in PD-L1 expression compared to uninfected cells. VZV induced PD-L2 expression in B cells and V-CD8+. Only VZV-infected CD8+ T cells, NKT cells and V-CD8+ upregulated PD-1 expression, the immunoinhibitory receptor for PD-L1/PD-L2. VZV induced CTLA-4 expression only in V-CD8+ and no significant changes in LAG-3 or TIM-3 expression were observed in V-CD8+ or PBMC T cells. To test whether PD-L1, PD-L2 or CTLA-4 regulates V-CD8+ effector function, autologous PBMCs were VZV-infected and co-cultured with V-CD8+ cells in the presence of blocking antibodies against PD-L1, PD-L2 or CTLA-4; ELISAs revealed significant elevations in IFNγ only upon blocking of PD-L1. Together, these results identified additional immune cells that are permissive to VZV infection (monocytes, B cells and NKT cells); along with a novel mechanism for inhibiting CD8+ T cell effector function through induction of PD-L1 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dallas Jones
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Christina N. Como
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Lichen Jing
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Anna Blackmon
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Charles Preston Neff
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Owen Krueger
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Andrew N. Bubak
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Brent E. Palmer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - David M. Koelle
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Maria A. Nagel
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
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16
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Sorel O, Messaoudi I. Varicella Virus-Host Interactions During Latency and Reactivation: Lessons From Simian Varicella Virus. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:3170. [PMID: 30619226 PMCID: PMC6308120 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a neurotropic alphaherpesvirus and the causative agent of varicella (chickenpox) in humans. Following primary infection, VZV establishes latency in the sensory ganglia and can reactivate to cause herpes zoster, more commonly known as shingles, which causes significant morbidity, and on rare occasions mortality, in the elderly. Because VZV infection is highly restricted to humans, the development of a reliable animal model has been challenging, and our understanding of VZV pathogenesis remains incomplete. As an alternative, infection of rhesus macaques with the homologous simian varicella virus (SVV) recapitulates the hallmarks of VZV infection and thus constitutes a robust animal model to provide critical insights into VZV pathogenesis and the host antiviral response. In this model, SVV infection results in the development of varicella during primary infection, generation of an adaptive immune response, establishment of latency in the sensory ganglia, and viral reactivation upon immune suppression. In this review, we discuss our current knowledge about host and viral factors involved in the establishment of SVV latency and reactivation as well as the important role played by T cells in SVV pathogenesis and antiviral immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Océane Sorel
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
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17
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Laing KJ, Ouwendijk WJD, Koelle DM, Verjans GMGM. Immunobiology of Varicella-Zoster Virus Infection. J Infect Dis 2018; 218:S68-S74. [PMID: 30247598 PMCID: PMC6151075 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes clinically significant illness during acute and recurrent infection accompanied by robust innate and acquired immune responses. Innate immune cells in skin and ganglion secrete type I interferon (IFN-I) and proinflammatory cytokines to control VZV. Varicella-zoster virus subverts pattern recognition receptor sensing to modulate antigen presentation and IFN-I production. During primary infection, VZV hijacks T cells to disseminate to the skin and establishes latency in ganglia. Durable T- and B-cell memory formed within a few weeks of infection is boosted by reactivation or re-exposure. Antigen-specific T cells are recruited and potentially retained in VZV-infected skin to counteract reactivation. In latently VZV-infected ganglia, however, virus-specific T cells have not been recovered, suggesting that local innate immune responses control VZV latency. Antibodies prevent primary VZV infection, whereas T cells are fundamental to resolving disease, limiting severity, and preventing reactivation. In this study, we review current knowledge on the interactions between VZV and the human immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry J Laing
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle
| | | | - David M Koelle
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle
- Vaccine and Infectious Diseases Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington
- Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
| | - Georges M G M Verjans
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
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18
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Li Y, Wu Q, Huang L, Yuan C, Wang J, Yang Q. An alternative pathway of enteric PEDV dissemination from nasal cavity to intestinal mucosa in swine. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3811. [PMID: 30232333 PMCID: PMC6145876 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06056-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) has catastrophic impacts on the global pig industry. Although the fecal–oral route is generally accepted, an increased number of reports indicate that airborne transmission may contribute to PEDV outbreak. Here, we show that PEDV could cause typical diarrhea in piglets through a nasal spray. Firstly, PEDV can develop a transient nasal epithelium infection. Subsequently, PEDV-carrying dendritic cells (DCs) allow the virus to be transferred to CD3+ T cells via the virological synapse. Finally, virus-loaded CD3+ T cells reach the intestine through the blood circulation, leading to intestinal infection via cell-to-cell contact. Our study provides evidence for airborne transmission of a gastrointestinal infected coronavirus and illustrates the mechanism of its transport from the entry site to the pathogenic site. Outbreaks of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) have seriously affected pig farms around the world. Here, Li et al. show that PEDV can cause disease in piglets when inoculated by nasal spray, and provide insights into the cellular mechanisms underlying PEDV dissemination within the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Li
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Qingxin Wu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Lulu Huang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Chen Yuan
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Jialu Wang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Qian Yang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Weigang 1, Nanjing, 210095, Jiangsu, PR China.
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19
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Depledge DP, Sadaoka T, Ouwendijk WJD. Molecular Aspects of Varicella-Zoster Virus Latency. Viruses 2018; 10:v10070349. [PMID: 29958408 PMCID: PMC6070824 DOI: 10.3390/v10070349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection causes varicella (chickenpox) and the establishment of a lifelong latent infection in ganglionic neurons. VZV reactivates in about one-third of infected individuals to cause herpes zoster, often accompanied by neurological complications. The restricted host range of VZV and, until recently, a lack of suitable in vitro models have seriously hampered molecular studies of VZV latency. Nevertheless, recent technological advances facilitated a series of exciting studies that resulted in the discovery of a VZV latency-associated transcript (VLT) and provide novel insights into our understanding of VZV latency and factors that may initiate reactivation. Deducing the function(s) of VLT and the molecular mechanisms involved should now be considered a priority to improve our understanding of factors that govern VZV latency and reactivation. In this review, we summarize the implications of recent discoveries in the VZV latency field from both a virus and host perspective and provide a roadmap for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Depledge
- Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA.
| | - Tomohiko Sadaoka
- Division of Clinical Virology, Center for Infectious Diseases, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-1 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan.
| | - Werner J D Ouwendijk
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Centre, 3015 CN Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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20
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Ouwendijk WJD, van Veen S, Mehraban T, Mahalingam R, Verjans GMGM. Simian Varicella Virus Infects Enteric Neurons and α4β7 Integrin-Expressing Gut-Tropic T-Cells in Nonhuman Primates. Viruses 2018; 10:v10040156. [PMID: 29597335 PMCID: PMC5923450 DOI: 10.3390/v10040156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of enteric zoster, a rare debilitating complication of reactivation of latent varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in the enteric nervous system (ENS), is largely unknown. Infection of monkeys with the closely related Varicellovirus simian varicella virus (SVV) mimics VZV disease in humans. In this study, we determined the applicability of the SVV nonhuman primate model to study Varicellovirus infection of the ENS. We confirmed VZV infection of the gut in latently infected adults and demonstrated that SVV DNA was similarly present in gut of monkeys latently infected with SVV using quantitative real-time PCR. In situ analyses showed that enteric neurons expressed SVV open reading frame (ORF) 63 RNA, but not viral nucleocapsid proteins, suggestive of latent ENS infection. During primary infection, SVV-infected T-cells were detected in gut-draining mesenteric lymph nodes and located in close vicinity to enteric nerves in the gut. Furthermore, flow cytometric analysis of blood from acutely SVV-infected monkeys demonstrated that virus-infected T-cells expressed the gut-homing receptor α4β7 integrin. Collectively, the data demonstrate that SVV infects ENS neurons during primary infection and supports the role of T-cells in virus dissemination to the gut. Because SVV reactivation can be experimentally induced, the SVV nonhuman primate model holds great potential to study the pathogenesis of enteric zoster.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suzanne van Veen
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 CE Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Tamana Mehraban
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 CE Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| | - Georges M G M Verjans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 CE Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
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A spliced latency-associated VZV transcript maps antisense to the viral transactivator gene 61. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1167. [PMID: 29563516 PMCID: PMC5862956 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03569-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), an alphaherpesvirus, establishes lifelong latent infection in the neurons of >90% humans worldwide, reactivating in one-third to cause shingles, debilitating pain and stroke. How VZV maintains latency remains unclear. Here, using ultra-deep virus-enriched RNA sequencing of latently infected human trigeminal ganglia (TG), we demonstrate the consistent expression of a spliced VZV mRNA, antisense to VZV open reading frame 61 (ORF61). The spliced VZV latency-associated transcript (VLT) is expressed in human TG neurons and encodes a protein with late kinetics in productively infected cells in vitro and in shingles skin lesions. Whereas multiple alternatively spliced VLT isoforms (VLTly) are expressed during lytic infection, a single unique VLT isoform, which specifically suppresses ORF61 gene expression in co-transfected cells, predominates in latently VZV-infected human TG. The discovery of VLT links VZV with the other better characterized human and animal neurotropic alphaherpesviruses and provides insights into VZV latency. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) establishes lifelong infection in the majority of the population, but mechanisms underlying latency remain unclear. Here, the authors use ultra-deep RNA sequencing, enriched for viral RNAs, of latently infected human trigeminal ganglia and identify a spliced, latency-associated VZV mRNA.
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22
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Attenuation of Simian Varicella Virus Infection by Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein in Rhesus Macaques. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.02253-17. [PMID: 29343566 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02253-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Simian varicella virus (SVV), the primate counterpart of varicella-zoster virus, causes varicella (chickenpox), establishes latency in ganglia, and reactivates to produce zoster. We previously demonstrated that a recombinant SVV expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (rSVV.eGFP) is slightly attenuated both in culture and in infected monkeys. Here, we generated two additional recombinant SVVs to visualize infected cells in vitro and in vivo One harbors eGFP fused to the N terminus of open reading frame 9 (ORF9) (rSVV.eGFP-2a-ORF9), and another harbors eGFP fused to the C terminus of ORF66 (rSVV.eGFP-ORF66). Both recombinant viruses efficiently expressed eGFP in cultured cells. Both recombinant SVV infections in culture were comparable to that of wild-type SVV (SVV.wt). Unlike SVV.wt, eGFP-tagged SVV did not replicate in rhesus cells in culture. Intratracheal (i.t.) or i.t. plus intravenous (i.v.) inoculation of rhesus macaques with these new eGFP-tagged viruses resulted in low viremia without varicella rash, although SVV DNA was abundant in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid at 10 days postinoculation (dpi). SVV DNA was also found in trigeminal ganglia of one monkey inoculated with rSVV.eGFP-ORF66. Intriguingly, a humoral response to both SVV and eGFP was observed. In addition, monkeys inoculated with the eGFP-expressing viruses were protected from superinfection with SVV.wt, suggesting that the monkeys had mounted an efficient immune response. Together, our results show that eGFP expression could be responsible for their reduced pathogenesis.IMPORTANCE SVV infection in nonhuman primates has served as an extremely useful animal model to study varicella-zoster virus (VZV) pathogenesis. eGFP-tagged viruses are a great tool to investigate their pathogenesis. We constructed and tested two new recombinant SVVs with eGFP inserted into two different locations in the SVV genome. Both recombinant SVVs showed robust replication in culture but reduced viremia compared to that with SVV.wt during primary infection in rhesus macaques. Our results indicate that conclusions on eGFP-tagged viruses based on in vitro results should be handled with care, since eGFP expression could result in attenuation of the virus.
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23
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Ouwendijk WJD, van Veen S, Mahalingam R, Verjans GMGM. Simian varicella virus inhibits the interferon gamma signalling pathway. J Gen Virol 2017; 98:2582-2588. [PMID: 28901902 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The alphaherpesvirus simian varicella virus (SVV) causes varicella and zoster in nonhuman primates. Herpesviruses evolved elaborate mechanisms to escape host immunity, but the immune evasion strategies employed by SVV remain ill-defined. We analysed whether SVV impairs the cellular response to key antiviral cytokine interferon-γ (IFNγ). SVV infection inhibited the expression of IFNγ-induced genes like C-X-C motif chemokine 10 and interferon regulatory factor 1. Phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) was blocked in SVV-infected cells, which did not involve cellular and viral phosphatases. SVV infection did not downregulate IFNγ receptor α and β chain expression on the cell surface. Instead, STAT1, Janus tyrosine kinases 1 (JAK1) and JAK2 protein levels were significantly decreased in SVV-infected cells. Collectively, these results demonstrate that SVV targets three proteins in the IFNγ signal transduction pathway to escape the antiviral effects of IFNγ.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suzanne van Veen
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Georges M G M Verjans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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Arnold N, Messaoudi I. Simian varicella virus causes robust transcriptional changes in T cells that support viral replication. Virus Res 2017; 238:226-235. [PMID: 28698046 PMCID: PMC7114558 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2017.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
T cells play a major role in varicella viruses dissemination to ganglia and skin. SVV infection of T cells increases the expression of cell cycle genes. SVV infection downregulates genes important for antigen presentation in T cells. SVV T cell infection disrupts expression of genes vital for metabolism and immunity.
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella (chickenpox) during acute infection. Several studies have shown that T cells are early and preferential targets of VZV infection that play a critical role in disseminating VZV in to the skin and ganglia. However, the transcriptional changes that occur in VZV-infected T cells remain unclear due to limited access to clinical samples and robust translational animal models. In this study, we used a nonhuman primate model of VZV infection where rhesus macaques are infected with the closely related Simian Varicella Virus (SVV) to provide novel insights into VZV-T cell interactions. RNA sequencing of bronchial alveolar lavage-resident T cells isolated from infected rhesus macaques show that SVV infection alters expression of genes important for regulation of gene expression, cell cycle progression, metabolism, and antiviral immunity. These data provide insight into cellular processes that may support viral replication, facilitate SVV dissemination, and evade host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Arnold
- Graduate Program in Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.
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Donald H. Gilden, M.D. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 308:2-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Arnold N, Messaoudi I. Herpes zoster and the search for an effective vaccine. Clin Exp Immunol 2017; 187:82-92. [PMID: 27164323 PMCID: PMC5167054 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary infection with varicella zoster virus (VZV), an exclusively human neurotrophic alphaherpsesvirus, results in varicella, known more commonly as chickenpox. Like other alphaherpesviruses, VZV establishes latency in the sensory ganglia and can reactivate to cause herpes zoster (also known as shingles), a painful and debilitating disease, especially in elderly and immunocompromised individuals. The overall incidence of herpes zoster in Europe and the United States is three per 1000 people, but increases sharply after 60 years of age to 10 per 1000 people. Zostavax® is a vaccine approved by the Federal Drug Administration for the prevention of herpes zoster. Unfortunately, this vaccine reduces the incidence of disease by only 51% and the incidence of post-herpetic neuralgia by 66·5% when administered to those aged 60 and older. Moreover, it is contraindicated for individuals who are immunocompromised or receiving immunosuppressant treatments, although they are at higher risk for herpes zoster compared to immune-competent older individuals. This paper reviews VZV pathogenesis, host responses and current vaccines available to prevent herpes zoster.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Arnold
- Graduate Program in Microbiology, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - I Messaoudi
- Graduate Program in Microbiology, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
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Arnold N, Girke T, Sureshchandra S, Messaoudi I. Acute Simian Varicella Virus Infection Causes Robust and Sustained Changes in Gene Expression in the Sensory Ganglia. J Virol 2016; 90:10823-10843. [PMID: 27681124 PMCID: PMC5110160 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01272-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary infection with varicella-zoster virus (VZV), a neurotropic alphaherpesvirus, results in varicella. VZV establishes latency in the sensory ganglia and can reactivate later in life to cause herpes zoster. The relationship between VZV and its host during acute infection in the sensory ganglia is not well understood due to limited access to clinical specimens. Intrabronchial inoculation of rhesus macaques with simian varicella virus (SVV) recapitulates the hallmarks of VZV infection in humans. We leveraged this animal model to characterize the host-pathogen interactions in the ganglia during both acute and latent infection by measuring both viral and host transcriptomes on days postinfection (dpi) 3, 7, 10, 14, and 100. SVV DNA and transcripts were detected in sensory ganglia 3 dpi, before the appearance of rash. CD4 and CD8 T cells were also detected in the sensory ganglia 3 dpi. Moreover, lung-resident T cells isolated from the same animals 3 dpi also harbored SVV DNA and transcripts, suggesting that T cells may be responsible for trafficking SVV to the ganglia. Transcriptome sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis showed that cessation of viral transcription 7 dpi coincides with a robust antiviral innate immune response in the ganglia. Interestingly, a significant number of genes that play a critical role in nervous system development and function remained downregulated into latency. These studies provide novel insights into host-pathogen interactions in the sensory ganglia during acute varicella and demonstrate that SVV infection results in profound and sustained changes in neuronal gene expression. IMPORTANCE Many aspects of VZV infection of sensory ganglia remain poorly understood, due to limited access to human specimens and the fact that VZV is strictly a human virus. Infection of rhesus macaques with simian varicella virus (SVV), a homolog of VZV, provides a robust model of the human disease. Using this model, we show that SVV reaches the ganglia early after infection, most likely by T cells, and that the induction of a robust innate immune response correlates with cessation of virus transcription. We also report significant changes in the expression of genes that play an important role in neuronal function. Importantly, these changes persist long after viral replication ceases. Given the homology between SVV and VZV, and the genetic and physiological similarities between rhesus macaques and humans, our results provide novel insight into the interactions between VZV and its human host and explain some of the neurological consequences of VZV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Arnold
- Graduate Program in Microbiology, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Thomas Girke
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Suhas Sureshchandra
- Graduate Program in Genetics, Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Graduate Program in Microbiology, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
- Graduate Program in Genetics, Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
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Ouwendijk WJD, Getu S, Mahalingam R, Gilden D, Osterhaus ADME, Verjans GMGM. Characterization of the immune response in ganglia after primary simian varicella virus infection. J Neurovirol 2015; 22:376-88. [PMID: 26676825 PMCID: PMC4899505 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-015-0408-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Revised: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/15/2015] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Primary simian varicella virus (SVV) infection in non-human primates causes varicella, after which the virus becomes latent in ganglionic neurons and reactivates to cause zoster. The host response in ganglia during establishment of latency is ill-defined. Ganglia from five African green monkeys (AGMs) obtained at 9, 13, and 20 days post-intratracheal SVV inoculation (dpi) were analyzed by ex vivo flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, and in situ hybridization. Ganglia at 13 and 20 dpi exhibited mild inflammation. Immune infiltrates consisted mostly of CD8(dim) and CD8(bright) memory T cells, some of which expressed granzyme B, and fewer CD11c(+) and CD68(+) cells. Chemoattractant CXCL10 transcripts were expressed in neurons and infiltrating inflammatory cells but did not co-localize with SVV open reading frame 63 (ORF63) RNA expression. Satellite glial cells expressed increased levels of activation markers CD68 and MHC class II at 13 and 20 dpi compared to those at 9 dpi. Overall, local immune responses emerged as viral DNA load in ganglia declined, suggesting that intra-ganglionic immunity contributes to restricting SVV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner J D Ouwendijk
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 's-Gravendijkwal 230, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Sarah Getu
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 's-Gravendijkwal 230, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Don Gilden
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Albert D M E Osterhaus
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 's-Gravendijkwal 230, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Georges M G M Verjans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 's-Gravendijkwal 230, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a ubiquitous, exclusively human alphaherpesvirus. Primary infection usually results in varicella (chickenpox), after which VZV becomes latent in ganglionic neurons along the entire neuraxis. As VZV-specific cell-mediated immunity declines in elderly and immunocompromised individuals, VZV reactivates and causes herpes zoster (shingles), frequently complicated by postherpetic neuralgia. VZV reactivation also produces multiple serious neurological and ocular diseases, such as cranial nerve palsies, meningoencephalitis, myelopathy, and VZV vasculopathy, including giant cell arteritis, with or without associated rash. Herein, we review the clinical, laboratory, imaging, and pathological features of neurological complications of VZV reactivation as well as diagnostic tests to verify VZV infection of the nervous system. Updates on the physical state of VZV DNA and viral gene expression in latently infected ganglia, neuronal, and primate models to study varicella pathogenesis and immunity are presented along with innovations in the immunization of elderly individuals to prevent VZV reactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Don Gilden
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA; Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12800, USA
| | - Maria Nagel
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA
| | - Randall Cohrs
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA; Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12800, USA
| | - Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA
| | - Nicholas Baird
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, 12700, USA
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Simian Varicella Virus Is Present in Macrophages, Dendritic Cells, and T Cells in Lymph Nodes of Rhesus Macaques after Experimental Reactivation. J Virol 2015; 89:9817-24. [PMID: 26178993 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01324-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Like varicella-zoster virus (VZV), simian varicella virus (SVV) reactivates to produce zoster. In the present study, 5 rhesus macaques were inoculated intrabronchially with SVV, and 5 months later, 4 monkeys were immunosuppressed; 1 monkey was not immunosuppressed but was subjected to the stress of transportation. In 4 monkeys, a zoster rash developed 7 to 12 weeks after immunosuppression, and a rash also developed in the monkey that was not immunosuppressed. Analysis at 24 to 48 h after zoster revealed SVV antigen in the lung alveolar wall, in ganglionic neurons and nonneuronal cells, and in skin and in lymph nodes. In skin, SVV was found primarily in sweat glands. In lymph nodes, the SVV antigen colocalized mostly with macrophages, dendritic cells, and, to a lesser extent, T cells. The presence of SVV in lymph nodes, as verified by quantitative PCR detection of SVV DNA, might reflect the sequestration of virus by macrophages and dendritic cells in lymph nodes or the presentation of viral antigens to T cells to initiate an immune response against SVV, or both. IMPORTANCE VZV causes varicella (chickenpox), becomes latent in ganglia, and reactivates to produce zoster and multiple other serious neurological disorders. SVV in nonhuman primates has proved to be a useful model in which the pathogenesis of the virus parallels the pathogenesis of VZV in humans. Here, we show that SVV antigens are present in sweat glands in skin and in macrophages and dendritic cells in lymph nodes after SVV reactivation in monkeys, raising the possibility that macrophages and dendritic cells in lymph nodes serve as antigen-presenting cells to activate T cell responses against SVV after reactivation.
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An in vitro model of latency and reactivation of varicella zoster virus in human stem cell-derived neurons. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004885. [PMID: 26042814 PMCID: PMC4456082 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) latency in sensory and autonomic neurons has remained enigmatic and difficult to study, and experimental reactivation has not yet been achieved. We have previously shown that human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived neurons are permissive to a productive and spreading VZV infection. We now demonstrate that hESC-derived neurons can also host a persistent non-productive infection lasting for weeks which can subsequently be reactivated by multiple experimental stimuli. Quiescent infections were established by exposing neurons to low titer cell-free VZV either by using acyclovir or by infection of axons in compartmented microfluidic chambers without acyclovir. VZV DNA and low levels of viral transcription were detectable by qPCR for up to seven weeks. Quiescently-infected human neuronal cultures were induced to undergo renewed viral gene and protein expression by growth factor removal or by inhibition of PI3-Kinase activity. Strikingly, incubation of cultures induced to reactivate at a lower temperature (34°C) resulted in enhanced VZV reactivation, resulting in spreading, productive infections. Comparison of VZV genome transcription in quiescently-infected to productively-infected neurons using RNASeq revealed preferential transcription from specific genome regions, especially the duplicated regions. These experiments establish a powerful new system for modeling the VZV latent state, and reveal a potential role for temperature in VZV reactivation and disease. Most adults worldwide harbor latent VZV in their ganglia, and reactivation from it causes herpes zoster. This painful disease is frequently complicated by long-term pain, neurological sequelae, or vision loss that require improved prevention and treatment strategies. Study of VZV latency and reactivation has been severely hampered by the inability to reproduce a persistent state in vitro or in vivo that can be experimentally reactivated. Our study establishes a system using human neurons derived from embryonic stem cells where multiple stimuli can induce reactivation from long term experimental latency. A potential role for temperature in VZV reactivation has been revealed with this system, which can now be used to study the latent/lytic switch of VZV for the first time.
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Duncan CJ, Hambleton S. Varicella zoster virus immunity: A primer. J Infect 2015; 71 Suppl 1:S47-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2015.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Grigoryan S, Yee MB, Glick Y, Gerber D, Kepten E, Garini Y, Yang IH, Kinchington PR, Goldstein RS. Direct transfer of viral and cellular proteins from varicella-zoster virus-infected non-neuronal cells to human axons. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0126081. [PMID: 25973990 PMCID: PMC4431828 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV), the alphaherpesvirus that causes varicella upon primary infection and Herpes zoster (shingles) following reactivation in latently infected neurons, is known to be fusogenic. It forms polynuclear syncytia in culture, in varicella skin lesions and in infected fetal human ganglia xenografted to mice. After axonal infection using VZV expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) in compartmentalized microfluidic cultures there is diffuse filling of axons with GFP as well as punctate fluorescence corresponding to capsids. Use of viruses with fluorescent fusions to VZV proteins reveals that both proteins encoded by VZV genes and those of the infecting cell are transferred in bulk from infecting non-neuronal cells to axons. Similar transfer of protein to axons was observed following cell associated HSV1 infection. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments provide evidence that this transfer is by diffusion of proteins from the infecting cells into axons. Time-lapse movies and immunocytochemical experiments in co-cultures demonstrate that non-neuronal cells fuse with neuronal somata and proteins from both cell types are present in the syncytia formed. The fusogenic nature of VZV therefore may enable not only conventional entry of virions and capsids into axonal endings in the skin by classical entry mechanisms, but also by cytoplasmic fusion that permits viral protein transfer to neurons in bulk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei Grigoryan
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Michael B Yee
- Departments of Ophthalmology, Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Yair Glick
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Doron Gerber
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Eldad Kepten
- Department of Physics, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Yuval Garini
- Department of Physics, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - In Hong Yang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- SiNAPSE National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Paul R. Kinchington
- Departments of Ophthalmology, Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Ronald S. Goldstein
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
- * E-mail:
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Schönrich G, Raftery MJ. Dendritic cells as Achilles' heel and Trojan horse during varicella zoster virus infection. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:417. [PMID: 26005438 PMCID: PMC4424880 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV), a human alphaherpesvirus, causes varicella and subsequently establishes latency within sensory nerve ganglia. Later in life VZV can reactivate to cause herpes zoster. A reduced frequency of VZV-specific T cells is strongly associated with herpes zoster illustrating that these immune cells are central to control latency. Dendritic cells (DCs) are required for the generation of VZV-specific T cells. However, DCs can also be infected in vitro and in vivo allowing VZV to evade the antiviral immune response. Thus, DCs represent the immune systems' Achilles heel. Uniquely among the human herpesviruses, VZV infects both DCs and T cells, and exploits both as Trojan horses. During primary infection VZV-infected DCs traffic to the draining lymph nodes and tonsils, where the virus is transferred to T cells. VZV-infected T cells subsequently spread infection throughout the body to give the typical varicella skin rash. The delicate interplay between VZV and DCs and its consequences for viral immune evasion and viral dissemination will be discussed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günther Schönrich
- Institute of Medical Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin J Raftery
- Institute of Medical Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
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Kennedy PGE, Rovnak J, Badani H, Cohrs RJ. A comparison of herpes simplex virus type 1 and varicella-zoster virus latency and reactivation. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:1581-602. [PMID: 25794504 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1; human herpesvirus 1) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV; human herpesvirus 3) are human neurotropic alphaherpesviruses that cause lifelong infections in ganglia. Following primary infection and establishment of latency, HSV-1 reactivation typically results in herpes labialis (cold sores), but can occur frequently elsewhere on the body at the site of primary infection (e.g. whitlow), particularly at the genitals. Rarely, HSV-1 reactivation can cause encephalitis; however, a third of the cases of HSV-1 encephalitis are associated with HSV-1 primary infection. Primary VZV infection causes varicella (chickenpox) following which latent virus may reactivate decades later to produce herpes zoster (shingles), as well as an increasingly recognized number of subacute, acute and chronic neurological conditions. Following primary infection, both viruses establish a latent infection in neuronal cells in human peripheral ganglia. However, the detailed mechanisms of viral latency and reactivation have yet to be unravelled. In both cases latent viral DNA exists in an 'end-less' state where the ends of the virus genome are joined to form structures consistent with unit length episomes and concatemers, from which viral gene transcription is restricted. In latently infected ganglia, the most abundantly detected HSV-1 RNAs are the spliced products originating from the primary latency associated transcript (LAT). This primary LAT is an 8.3 kb unstable transcript from which two stable (1.5 and 2.0 kb) introns are spliced. Transcripts mapping to 12 VZV genes have been detected in human ganglia removed at autopsy; however, it is difficult to ascribe these as transcripts present during latent infection as early-stage virus reactivation may have transpired in the post-mortem time period in the ganglia. Nonetheless, low-level transcription of VZV ORF63 has been repeatedly detected in multiple ganglia removed as close to death as possible. There is increasing evidence that HSV-1 and VZV latency is epigenetically regulated. In vitro models that permit pathway analysis and identification of both epigenetic modulations and global transcriptional mechanisms of HSV-1 and VZV latency hold much promise for our future understanding in this complex area. This review summarizes the molecular biology of HSV-1 and VZV latency and reactivation, and also presents future directions for study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G E Kennedy
- 1Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Garscube Campus, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| | - Joel Rovnak
- 2Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Hussain Badani
- 3Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Medical School, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Randall J Cohrs
- 3Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Medical School, Aurora, CO 80045, USA 4Department of Microbiology, University of Colorado Medical School, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Ouwendijk WJD, Verjans GMGM. Pathogenesis of varicelloviruses in primates. J Pathol 2015; 235:298-311. [PMID: 25255989 DOI: 10.1002/path.4451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Varicelloviruses in primates comprise the prototypic human varicella-zoster virus (VZV) and its non-human primate homologue, simian varicella virus (SVV). Both viruses cause varicella as a primary infection, establish latency in ganglionic neurons and reactivate later in life to cause herpes zoster in their respective hosts. VZV is endemic worldwide and, although varicella is usually a benign disease in childhood, VZV reactivation is a significant cause of neurological disease in the elderly and in immunocompromised individuals. The pathogenesis of VZV infection remains ill-defined, mostly due to the species restriction of VZV that impedes studies in experimental animal models. SVV infection of non-human primates parallels virological, clinical, pathological and immunological features of human VZV infection, thereby providing an excellent model to study the pathogenesis of varicella and herpes zoster in its natural host. In this review, we discuss recent studies that provided novel insight in both the virus and host factors involved in the three elementary stages of Varicellovirus infection in primates: primary infection, latency and reactivation.
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37
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Lin J, Eggensperger S, Hank S, Wycisk AI, Wieneke R, Mayerhofer PU, Tampé R. A negative feedback modulator of antigen processing evolved from a frameshift in the cowpox virus genome. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004554. [PMID: 25503639 PMCID: PMC4263761 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Coevolution of viruses and their hosts represents a dynamic molecular battle between the immune system and viral factors that mediate immune evasion. After the abandonment of smallpox vaccination, cowpox virus infections are an emerging zoonotic health threat, especially for immunocompromised patients. Here we delineate the mechanistic basis of how cowpox viral CPXV012 interferes with MHC class I antigen processing. This type II membrane protein inhibits the coreTAP complex at the step after peptide binding and peptide-induced conformational change, in blocking ATP binding and hydrolysis. Distinct from other immune evasion mechanisms, TAP inhibition is mediated by a short ER-lumenal fragment of CPXV012, which results from a frameshift in the cowpox virus genome. Tethered to the ER membrane, this fragment mimics a high ER-lumenal peptide concentration, thus provoking a trans-inhibition of antigen translocation as supply for MHC I loading. These findings illuminate the evolution of viral immune modulators and the basis of a fine-balanced regulation of antigen processing. Virus-infected or malignant transformed cells are eliminated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which recognize antigenic peptide epitopes in complex with major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules at the cell surface. The majority of such peptides are derived from proteasomal degradation in the cytosol and are then translocated into the ER lumen in an energy-consuming reaction via the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP), which delivers the peptides onto MHC I molecules as final acceptors. Viruses have evolved sophisticated strategies to escape this immune surveillance. Here we show that the cowpox viral protein CPXV012 inhibits the ER peptide translocation machinery by allosterically blocking ATP binding and hydrolysis by TAP. The short ER resident active domain of the viral protein evolved from a reading frame shift in the cowpox virus genome and exploits the ER-lumenal negative feedback peptide sensor of TAP. This CPXV012-induced conformational arrest of TAP is signaled by a unique communication across the ER membrane to the cytosolic motor domains of the peptide pump. Furthermore, this study provides the rare opportunity to decipher on a molecular level how nature plays hide and seek with a pathogen and its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiacheng Lin
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Sabine Eggensperger
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Susanne Hank
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Agnes I. Wycisk
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Ralph Wieneke
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Peter U. Mayerhofer
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
- * E-mail: (PUM); (RT)
| | - Robert Tampé
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence – Macromolecular Complexes, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
- * E-mail: (PUM); (RT)
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T cells increase before zoster and PD-1 expression increases at the time of zoster in immunosuppressed nonhuman primates latently infected with simian varicella virus. J Neurovirol 2014; 20:309-13. [PMID: 24549971 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-014-0237-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Like varicella zoster virus in humans, simian varicella virus (SVV) becomes latent in ganglionic neurons along the entire neuraxis and reactivates in immunosuppressed monkeys. Five rhesus macaques were inoculated with SVV; 142 days later (latency), four monkeys were immunosuppressed, and T cells were analyzed for naïve, memory, and effector phenotypes and expression of programmed death receptor-1 (PD-1; T cell exhaustion). All T cell subsets decreased during immunosuppression and except for CD8 effectors, peaked 2 weeks before zoster. Compared to before immunosuppression, PD-1 expression increased at reactivation. Increased T cells before zoster is likely due to virus reactivation.
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