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Tamir H, Noy-Porat T, Melamed S, Cherry-Mimran L, Barlev-Gross M, Alcalay R, Yahalom-Ronen Y, Achdout H, Politi B, Erez N, Weiss S, Rosenfeld R, Epstein E, Mazor O, Makdasi E, Paran N, Israely T. Synergistic effect of two human-like monoclonal antibodies confers protection against orthopoxvirus infection. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3265. [PMID: 38627363 PMCID: PMC11021552 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47328-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The eradication of smallpox was officially declared by the WHO in 1980, leading to discontinuation of the vaccination campaign against the virus. Consequently, immunity against smallpox and related orthopoxviruses like Monkeypox virus gradually declines, highlighting the need for efficient countermeasures not only for the prevention, but also for the treatment of already exposed individuals. We have recently developed human-like monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from vaccinia virus-immunized non-human primates. Two mAbs, MV33 and EV42, targeting the two infectious forms of the virus, were selected for in vivo evaluation, based on their in vitro neutralization potency. A single dose of either MV33 or EV42 administered three days post-infection (dpi) to BALB/c female mice provides full protection against lethal ectromelia virus challenge. Importantly, a combination of both mAbs confers full protection even when provided five dpi. Whole-body bioimaging and viral load analysis reveal that combination of the two mAbs allows for faster and more efficient clearance of the virus from target organs compared to either MV33 or EV42 separately. The combined mAbs treatment further confers post-exposure protection against the currently circulating Monkeypox virus in Cast/EiJ female mice, highlighting their therapeutic potential against other orthopoxviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadas Tamir
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Tal Noy-Porat
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Sharon Melamed
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | | | | | - Ron Alcalay
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | | | - Hagit Achdout
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Boaz Politi
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Noam Erez
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Shay Weiss
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Ronit Rosenfeld
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Eyal Epstein
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Ohad Mazor
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Efi Makdasi
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Nir Paran
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel
| | - Tomer Israely
- Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel.
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Kaiser FK, Wiedemann A, Kühl B, Menke L, Beineke A, Baumgärtner W, Wohlsein P, Rigbers K, Becher P, Peters M, Osterhaus ADME, Ludlow M. Swinepox Virus Strains Isolated from Domestic Pigs and Wild Boar in Germany Display Altered Coding Capacity in the Terminal Genome Region Encoding for Species-Specific Genes. Viruses 2021; 13:v13102038. [PMID: 34696467 PMCID: PMC8538704 DOI: 10.3390/v13102038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Swinepox virus (SWPV) is a globally distributed swine pathogen that causes sporadic cases of an acute poxvirus infection in domesticated pigs, characterized by the development of a pathognomonic proliferative dermatitis and secondary ulcerations. More severe disease with higher levels of morbidity and mortality is observed in congenitally SWPV-infected neonatal piglets. In this study, we investigated the evolutionary origins of SWPV strains isolated from domestic pigs and wild boar. Analysis of whole genome sequences of SWPV showed that at least two different virus strains are currently circulating in Germany. These were more closely related to a previously characterized North American SWPV strain than to a more recent Indian SWPV strain and showed a variation in the SWPV-specific genome region. A single nucleotide deletion in the wild boar (wb) SWPV strain leads to the fusion of the SPV019 and SPV020 open reading frames (ORFs) and encodes a new hypothetical 113 aa protein (SPVwb020-019). In addition, the domestic pig (dp) SWPV genome contained a novel ORF downstream of SPVdp020, which encodes a new hypothetical 71aa protein (SPVdp020a). In summary, we show that SWPV strains with altered coding capacity in the SWPV specific genome region are circulating in domestic pig and wild boar populations in Germany.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska K. Kaiser
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (F.K.K.); (L.M.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Anastasia Wiedemann
- Institute for Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (A.W.); (P.B.)
| | - Bianca Kühl
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (B.K.); (A.B.); (W.B.); (P.W.)
| | - Laura Menke
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (F.K.K.); (L.M.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Andreas Beineke
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (B.K.); (A.B.); (W.B.); (P.W.)
| | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (B.K.); (A.B.); (W.B.); (P.W.)
| | - Peter Wohlsein
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (B.K.); (A.B.); (W.B.); (P.W.)
| | - Kerstin Rigbers
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, 76187 Karlsruhe, Germany;
| | - Paul Becher
- Institute for Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (A.W.); (P.B.)
| | - Martin Peters
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Westfalen, 59821 Arnsberg, Germany;
| | - Albert D. M. E. Osterhaus
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (F.K.K.); (L.M.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
| | - Martin Ludlow
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (F.K.K.); (L.M.); (A.D.M.E.O.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-51-1953-6112
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Wale N, Duffy MA. The Use and Underuse of Model Systems in Infectious Disease Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Am Nat 2021; 198:69-92. [PMID: 34143716 DOI: 10.1086/714595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
AbstractEver since biologists began studying the ecology and evolution of infectious diseases (EEID), laboratory-based model systems have been important for developing and testing theory. Yet what EEID researchers mean by the term "model systems" and what they want from them is unclear. This uncertainty hinders our ability to maximally exploit these systems, identify knowledge gaps, and establish effective new model systems. Here, we borrow a definition of model systems from the biomolecular sciences to assess how EEID researchers are (and are not) using 10 key model systems. According to this definition, model systems in EEID are not being used to their fullest and, in fact, cannot even be considered model systems. Research using these systems consistently addresses only two of the three fundamental processes that underlie disease dynamics-transmission and disease, but not recovery. Furthermore, studies tend to focus on only a few scales of biological organization that matter for disease ecology and evolution. Moreover, the field lacks an infrastructure to perform comparative analyses. We aim to begin a discussion of what we want from model systems, which would further progress toward a thorough, holistic understanding of EEID.
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Poxvirus-encoded TNF receptor homolog dampens inflammation and protects from uncontrolled lung pathology during respiratory infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:26885-26894. [PMID: 33046647 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2004688117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Ectromelia virus (ECTV) causes mousepox, a surrogate mouse model for smallpox caused by variola virus in humans. Both orthopoxviruses encode tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) homologs or viral TNFR (vTNFR). These homologs are termed cytokine response modifier (Crm) proteins, containing a TNF-binding domain and a chemokine-binding domain called smallpox virus-encoded chemokine receptor (SECRET) domain. ECTV encodes one vTNFR known as CrmD. Infection of ECTV-resistant C57BL/6 mice with a CrmD deletion mutant virus resulted in uniform mortality due to excessive TNF secretion and dysregulated inflammatory cytokine production. CrmD dampened pathology, leukocyte recruitment, and inflammatory cytokine production in lungs including TNF, IL-6, IL-10, and IFN-γ. Blockade of TNF, IL-6, or IL-10R function with monoclonal antibodies reduced lung pathology and provided 60 to 100% protection from otherwise lethal infection. IFN-γ caused lung pathology only when both the TNF-binding and SECRET domains were absent. Presence of the SECRET domain alone induced significantly higher levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10, likely overcoming any protective effects that might have been afforded by anti-IFN-γ treatment. The use of TNF-deficient mice and those that express only membrane-associated but not secreted TNF revealed that CrmD is critically dependent on host TNF for its function. In vitro, recombinant Crm proteins from different orthopoxviruses bound to membrane-associated TNF and dampened inflammatory gene expression through reverse signaling. CrmD does not affect virus replication; however, it provides the host advantage by enabling survival. Host survival would facilitate virus spread, which would also provide an advantage to the virus.
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Radaelli E, Santagostino SF, Sellers RS, Brayton CF. Immune Relevant and Immune Deficient Mice: Options and Opportunities in Translational Research. ILAR J 2019; 59:211-246. [PMID: 31197363 PMCID: PMC7114723 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ily026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In 1989 ILAR published a list and description of immunodeficient rodents used in research. Since then, advances in understanding of molecular mechanisms; recognition of genetic, epigenetic microbial, and other influences on immunity; and capabilities in manipulating genomes and microbiomes have increased options and opportunities for selecting mice and designing studies to answer important mechanistic and therapeutic questions. Despite numerous scientific breakthroughs that have benefitted from research in mice, there is debate about the relevance and predictive or translational value of research in mice. Reproducibility of results obtained from mice and other research models also is a well-publicized concern. This review summarizes resources to inform the selection and use of immune relevant mouse strains and stocks, aiming to improve the utility, validity, and reproducibility of research in mice. Immune sufficient genetic variations, immune relevant spontaneous mutations, immunodeficient and autoimmune phenotypes, and selected induced conditions are emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Radaelli
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Sara F Santagostino
- Department of Safety Assessment, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, California
| | | | - Cory F Brayton
- Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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Mitochondrial Heat Shock Response Induced by Ectromelia Virus is Accompanied by Reduced Apoptotic Potential in Murine L929 Fibroblasts. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2019; 67:401-414. [PMID: 31324924 PMCID: PMC6805811 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-019-00554-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Poxviruses utilize multiple strategies to prevent activation of extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways for successful replication. Mitochondrial heat shock proteins (mtHsps), especially Hsp60 and its cofactor Hsp10, are engaged in apoptosis regulation; however, until now, the influence of poxviruses on mtHsps has never been studied. We used highly infectious Moscow strain of ectromelia virus (ECTV) to investigate the mitochondrial heat shock response and apoptotic potential in permissive L929 fibroblasts. Our results show that ECTV-infected cells exhibit mostly mitochondrial localization of Hsp60 and Hsp10, and show overexpression of both proteins during later stages of infection. ECTV infection has only moderate effect on the electron transport chain subunit expression. Moreover, increase of mtHsp amounts is accompanied by lack of apoptosis, and confirmed by reduced level of pro-apoptotic Bax protein and elevated levels of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL proteins. Taken together, we show a positive relationship between increased levels of Hsp60 and Hsp10 and decreased apoptotic potential of L929 fibroblasts, and further hypothesize that Hsp60 and/or its cofactor play important roles in maintaining protein homeostasis in mitochondria for promotion of cell survival allowing efficient replication of ECTV.
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Viral Replicative Capacity, Antigen Availability via Hematogenous Spread, and High T FH:T FR Ratios Drive Induction of Potent Neutralizing Antibody Responses. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.01795-18. [PMID: 30626686 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01795-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Live viral vaccines elicit protective, long-lived humoral immunity, but the underlying mechanisms through which this occurs are not fully elucidated. Generation of affinity matured, long-lived protective antibody responses involve close interactions between T follicular helper (TFH) cells, germinal center (GC) B cells, and T follicular regulatory (TFR) cells. We postulated that escalating concentrations of antigens from replicating viruses or live vaccines, spread through the hematogenous route, are essential for the induction and maintenance of long-lived protective antibody responses. Using replicating and poorly replicating or nonreplicating orthopox and influenza A viruses, we show that the magnitude of TFH cell, GC B cell, and neutralizing antibody responses is directly related to virus replicative capacity. Further, we have identified that both lymphoid and circulating TFH:TFR cell ratios during the peak GC response can be used as an early predictor of protective, long-lived antibody response induction. Finally, administration of poorly or nonreplicating viruses to allow hematogenous spread generates significantly stronger TFH:TFR ratios and robust TFH, GC B cell and neutralizing antibody responses.IMPORTANCE Neutralizing antibody response is the best-known correlate of long-term protective immunity for most of the currently licensed clinically effective viral vaccines. However, the host immune and viral factors that are critical for the induction of robust and durable antiviral humoral immune responses are not well understood. Our study provides insight into the dynamics of key cellular mediators of germinal center reaction during live virus infections and the influence of viral replicative capacity on the magnitude of antiviral antibody response and effector function. The significance of our study lies in two key findings. First, the systemic spread of even poorly replicating or nonreplicating viruses to mimic the spread of antigens from replicating viruses due to escalating antigen concentration is fundamental to the induction of durable antibody responses. Second, the TFH:TFR ratio may be used as an early predictor of protective antiviral humoral immune responses long before memory responses are generated.
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Cheng WY, Jia HJ, He XB, Chen GH, Feng Y, Wang CY, Wang XX, Jing ZZ. Comparison of Host Gene Expression Profiles in Spleen Tissues of Genetically Susceptible and Resistant Mice during ECTV Infection. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 2017:6456180. [PMID: 29430463 PMCID: PMC5752998 DOI: 10.1155/2017/6456180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Ectromelia virus (ECTV), the causative agent of mousepox, has emerged as a valuable model for investigating the host-Orthopoxvirus relationship as it relates to pathogenesis and the immune response. ECTV is a mouse-specific virus and causes high mortality in susceptible mice strains, including BALB/c and C3H, whereas C57BL/6 and 129 strains are resistant to the disease. To understand the host genetic factors in different mouse strains during the ECTV infection, we carried out a microarray analysis of spleen tissues derived from BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice, respectively, at 3 and 10 days after ECTV infection. Differential Expression of Genes (DEGs) analyses revealed distinct differences in the gene profiles of susceptible and resistant mice. The susceptible BALB/c mice generated more DEGs than the resistant C57BL/6 mice. Additionally, gene ontology and KEGG pathway analysis showed the DEGs of susceptible mice were involved in innate immunity, apoptosis, metabolism, and cancer-related pathways, while the DEGs of resistant mice were largely involved in MAPK signaling and leukocyte transendothelial migration. Furthermore, the BALB/c mice showed a strong induction of interferon-induced genes, which, however, were weaker in the C57BL/6 mice. Collectively, the differential transcriptome profiles of susceptible and resistant mouse strains with ECTV infection will be crucial for further uncovering the molecular mechanisms of the host-Orthopoxvirus interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Yu Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health of Agriculture Ministry, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730046, China
| | - Huai-Jie Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health of Agriculture Ministry, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730046, China
| | - Xiao-Bing He
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health of Agriculture Ministry, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730046, China
| | - Guo-Hua Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health of Agriculture Ministry, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730046, China
| | - Yuan Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health of Agriculture Ministry, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730046, China
| | - Chun-Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health of Agriculture Ministry, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730046, China
| | - Xiao-Xia Wang
- School of Public Health, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Zhi-Zhong Jing
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health of Agriculture Ministry, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu 730046, China
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Miner JJ, Sene A, Richner JM, Smith AM, Santeford A, Ban N, Weger-Lucarelli J, Manzella F, Rückert C, Govero J, Noguchi KK, Ebel GD, Diamond MS, Apte RS. Zika Virus Infection in Mice Causes Panuveitis with Shedding of Virus in Tears. Cell Rep 2016; 16:3208-3218. [PMID: 27612415 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.08.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging flavivirus that causes congenital abnormalities and Guillain-Barré syndrome. ZIKV infection also results in severe eye disease characterized by optic neuritis, chorioretinal atrophy, and blindness in newborns and conjunctivitis and uveitis in adults. We evaluated ZIKV infection of the eye by using recently developed mouse models of pathogenesis. ZIKV-inoculated mice developed conjunctivitis, panuveitis, and infection of the cornea, iris, optic nerve, and ganglion and bipolar cells in the retina. This phenotype was independent of the entry receptors Axl or Mertk, given that Axl(-/-), Mertk(-/-), and Axl(-/-)Mertk(-/-) double knockout mice sustained levels of infection similar to those of control animals. We also detected abundant viral RNA in tears, suggesting that virus might be secreted from lacrimal glands or shed from the cornea. This model provides a foundation for studying ZIKV-induced ocular disease, defining mechanisms of viral persistence, and developing therapeutic approaches for viral infections of the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Miner
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US.
| | - Abdoulaye Sene
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US
| | - Justin M Richner
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US
| | - Amber M Smith
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US
| | - Andrea Santeford
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US
| | - Norimitsu Ban
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US
| | - James Weger-Lucarelli
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Francesca Manzella
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Claudia Rückert
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Jennifer Govero
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US
| | - Kevin K Noguchi
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Gregory D Ebel
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Michael S Diamond
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US; Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Pathology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA; The Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
| | - Rajendra S Apte
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, US; Department of Developmental Biology, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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