Plastid-endomembrane connections in apicomplexan parasites

Nourseothricin as a novel drug for selection of transgenic Giardia lamblia

Functional gene and protein characterizations in parasitic protists are often limited by their genetic tractability. Despite the development of CRISPR-Cas9-derived or inspired approaches for a handful of protist parasites, the overall genetic tractability of these organisms remains limited. The intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia is one such species, with the added challenge of a paucity of reliable selection markers. To address this limitation, we tested the feasibility of using Nourseothricin as an effective selection agent in Giardia. Here, we report that axenically-grown WB Giardia cells are sensitive to Nourseothricin and that engineering expression of the streptothricin acetyltransferase (SAT-1) gene from Streptomyces rochei in transgenic parasites confers resistance to this antibiotic. Furthermore, we determine that SAT-1-expressing parasites are cross-resistant neither to Neomycin nor Puromycin, which are widely used to select for transgenic parasites. Consequently, we show that Nourseothricin can be used in sequential combination with both Neomycin and Puromycin to select for dual transfection events. This work increases the number of reliable selection agents and markers for Giardia genetic manipulation, expanding the limited molecular toolbox for this species of global medical importance.

Malaria parasites require a divergent heme oxygenase for apicoplast gene expression and biogenesis

Malaria parasites have evolved unusual metabolic adaptations that specialize them for growth within heme-rich human erythrocytes. During blood-stage infection, Plasmodium falciparum parasites internalize and digest abundant host hemoglobin within the digestive vacuole. This massive catabolic process generates copious free heme, most of which is biomineralized into inert hemozoin. Parasites also express a divergent heme oxygenase (HO)-like protein (PfHO) that lacks key active-site residues and has lost canonical HO activity. The cellular role of this unusual protein that underpins its retention by parasites has been unknown. To unravel PfHO function, we first determined a 2.8 Å-resolution X-ray structure that revealed a highly α-helical fold indicative of distant HO homology. Localization studies unveiled PfHO targeting to the apicoplast organelle, where it is imported and undergoes N-terminal processing but retains most of the electropositive transit peptide. We observed that conditional knockdown of PfHO was lethal to parasites, which died from defective apicoplast biogenesis and impaired isoprenoid-precursor synthesis. Complementation and molecular-interaction studies revealed an essential role for the electropositive N-terminus of PfHO, which selectively associates with the apicoplast genome and enzymes involved in nucleic acid metabolism and gene expression. PfHO knockdown resulted in a specific deficiency in levels of apicoplast-encoded RNA but not DNA. These studies reveal an essential function for PfHO in apicoplast maintenance and suggest that Plasmodium repurposed the conserved HO scaffold from its canonical heme-degrading function in the ancestral chloroplast to fulfill a critical adaptive role in organelle gene expression.

Comparative chemical genomics in Babesia species identifies the alkaline phosphatase PhoD as a determinant of antiparasitic resistance

Babesiosis is an emerging zoonosis and widely distributed veterinary infection caused by 100+ species of Babesia parasites. The diversity of Babesia parasites and the lack of specific drugs necessitate the discovery of broadly effective antibabesials. Here, we describe a comparative chemogenomics (CCG) pipeline for the identification of conserved targets. CCG relies on parallel in vitro evolution of resistance in independent populations of Babesia spp. (B. bovis and B. divergens). We identified a potent antibabesial, MMV019266, from the Malaria Box, and selected for resistance in two species of Babesia. After sequencing of multiple independently derived lines in the two species, we identified mutations in a membrane-bound metallodependent phosphatase (phoD). In both species, the mutations were found in the phoD-like phosphatase domain. Using reverse genetics, we validated that mutations in bdphoD confer resistance to MMV019266 in B. divergens. We have also demonstrated that BdPhoD localizes to the endomembrane system and partially with the apicoplast. Finally, conditional knockdown and constitutive overexpression of BdPhoD alter the sensitivity to MMV019266 in the parasite. Overexpression of BdPhoD results in increased sensitivity to the compound, while knockdown increases resistance, suggesting BdPhoD is a pro-susceptibility factor. Together, we have generated a robust pipeline for identification of resistance loci and identified BdPhoD as a resistance mechanism in Babesia species.

Complex Endosymbiosis II: The Nonphotosynthetic Plastid of Apicomplexa Parasites (The Apicoplast) and Its Integrated Metabolism

Chloroplasts are essential organelles that are responsible for photosynthesis in a wide range of organisms that have colonized all biotopes on Earth such as plants and unicellular algae. Interestingly, a secondary endosymbiotic event of a red algal ancestor gave rise to a group of organisms that have adopted an obligate parasitic lifestyle named Apicomplexa parasites. Apicomplexa parasites are some of the most widespread and poorly controlled pathogens in the world. These infectious agents are responsible for major human diseases such as toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii, and malaria, caused by Plasmodium spp. Most of these parasites harbor this relict plastid named the apicoplast, which is essential for parasite survival. The apicoplast has lost photosynthetic capacities but is metabolically similar to plant and algal chloroplasts. The apicoplast is considered a novel and important drug target against Apicomplexa parasites. This chapter focuses on the apicoplast of apicomplexa parasites, its maintenance, and its metabolic pathways.

Comparative chemical genomics in Babesia species identifies the alkaline phosphatase phoD as a novel determinant of resistance

Babesiosis is an emerging zoonosis and widely distributed veterinary infection caused by 100+ species of Babesia parasites. The diversity of Babesia parasites, coupled with the lack of potent inhibitors necessitates the discovery of novel conserved druggable targets for the generation of broadly effective antibabesials. Here, we describe a comparative chemogenomics (CCG) pipeline for the identification of novel and conserved targets. CCG relies on parallel in vitro evolution of resistance in independent populations of evolutionarily-related Babesia spp. ( B. bovis and B. divergens ). We identified a potent antibabesial inhibitor from the Malaria Box, MMV019266. We were able to select for resistance to this compound in two species of Babesia, achieving 10-fold or greater resistance after ten weeks of intermittent selection. After sequencing of multiple independently derived lines in the two species, we identified mutations in a single conserved gene in both species: a membrane-bound metallodependent phosphatase (putatively named PhoD). In both species, the mutations were found in the phoD-like phosphatase domain, proximal to the predicted ligand binding site. Using reverse genetics, we validated that mutations in PhoD confer resistance to MMV019266. We have also demonstrated that PhoD localizes to the endomembrane system and partially with the apicoplast. Finally, conditional knockdown and constitutive overexpression of PhoD alter the sensitivity to MMV019266 in the parasite: overexpression of PhoD results in increased sensitivity to the compound, while knockdown increases resistance, suggesting PhoD is a resistance mechanism. Together, we have generated a robust pipeline for identification of resistance loci, and identified PhoD as a novel determinant of resistance in Babesia species.

Highlights

Use of two species for in vitro evolution identifies a high confidence locus associated with resistance Resistance mutation in phoD was validated using reverse genetics in B. divergens Perturbation of phoD using function genetics results in changes in the level of resistance to MMV019266Epitope tagging reveals localization to the ER/apicoplast, a conserved localization with a similar protein in diatoms Together, phoD is a novel resistance determinant in multiple Babesia spp .

The Dissection of SNAREs Reveals Key Factors for Vesicular Trafficking to the Endosome-like Compartment and Apicoplast via the Secretory System in Toxoplasma gondii

Vesicular trafficking is a fundamental cellular process involved in material transport in eukaryotes, but the diversity of the intracellular compartments has prevented researchers from obtaining a clear understanding of the specific functions of vesicular trafficking factors, including SNAREs, tethers, and Rab GTPases, in Apicomplexa. In this study, we analyzed the localization of SNAREs and investigated their roles in vesicular trafficking in Toxoplasma gondii. Our results revealed the specific localizations of SNAREs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (T. gondii Stx18 [TgStx18] and TgStx19), Golgi stacks (TgGS27), and endosome-like compartment (TgStx10 and TgStx12). The conditional ablation of ER- and Golgi-residing SNAREs caused severe defects in the secretory system. Most importantly, we found an R-SNARE (TgVAMP4-2) that is targeted to the apicoplast; to our knowledge, this work provides the first information showing a SNARE protein on endosymbiotic organelles and functioning in vesicular trafficking in eukaryotes. Conditional knockout of TgVAMP4-2 blocked the entrance of TgCPN60, TgACP, TgATrx2, and TgATrx1 into the apicoplast and interfered with the targeting of TgAPT1 and TgFtsH1 to the outermost membrane of the apicoplast. Together, our findings revealed the functions of SNAREs in the secretory system and the transport of nucleus-encoded proteins to an endosymbiotic organelle in a model organism of Apicomplexa. IMPORTANCE SNAREs are essential for the fusion of the transport vesicles and target membranes and, thus, provide perfect targets for obtaining a global view of the vesicle transport system. In this study, we report that a novel Qc-SNARE (TgStx19) instead of Use1 is located at the ER and acts as a partner of TgStx18 in T. gondii. TgGS27 and the tethering complex TRAPP III are conserved and critical for the biogenesis of the Golgi complex in T. gondii. A novel R-SNARE, TgVAMP4-2, is found on the outermost membrane of the apicoplast. The transport of NEAT proteins into the secondary endosymbiotic organelle depends on its function. To our knowledge, this work provides the first mention of a SNARE located on endosymbiotic organelles that functions in vesicular trafficking in eukaryotes.

An Ecologically Framed Comparison of The Potential for Zoonotic Transmission of Non-Human and Human-Infecting Species of Malaria Parasite

The threats, both real and perceived, surrounding the development of new and emerging infectious diseases of humans are of critical concern to public health and well-being. Among these risks is the potential for zoonotic transmission to humans of species of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium, that have been considered historically to infect exclusively non-human hosts. Recently observed shifts in the mode, transmission, and presentation of malaria among several species studied are evidenced by shared vectors, atypical symptoms, and novel host-seeking behavior. Collectively, these changes indicate the presence of environmental and ecological pressures that are likely to influence the dynamics of these parasite life cycles and physiological make-up. These may be further affected and amplified by such factors as increased urban development and accelerated rate of climate change. In particular, the extended host-seeking behavior of what were once considered non-human malaria species indicates the specialist niche of human malaria parasites is not a limiting factor that drives the success of blood-borne parasites. While zoonotic transmission of non-human malaria parasites is generally considered to not be possible for the vast majority of Plasmodium species, failure to consider the feasibility of its occurrence may lead to the emergence of a potentially life-threatening blood-borne disease of humans. Here, we argue that recent trends in behavior among what were hitherto considered to be non-human malaria parasites to infect humans call for a cross-disciplinary, ecologically-focused approach to understanding the complexities of the vertebrate host/mosquito vector/malaria parasite triangular relationship. This highlights a pressing need to conduct a multi-species investigation for which we recommend the construction of a database to determine ecological differences among all known Plasmodium species, vectors, and hosts. Closing this knowledge gap may help to inform alternative means of malaria prevention and control.

Using Diatom and Apicomplexan Models to Study the Heme Pathway of Chromera velia

Heme biosynthesis is essential for almost all living organisms. Despite its conserved function, the pathway’s enzymes can be located in a remarkable diversity of cellular compartments in different organisms. This location does not always reflect their evolutionary origins, as might be expected from the history of their acquisition through endosymbiosis. Instead, the final subcellular localization of the enzyme reflects multiple factors, including evolutionary origin, demand for the product, availability of the substrate, and mechanism of pathway regulation. The biosynthesis of heme in the apicomonad Chromera velia follows a chimeric pathway combining heme elements from the ancient algal symbiont and the host. Computational analyses using different algorithms predict complex targeting patterns, placing enzymes in the mitochondrion, plastid, endoplasmic reticulum, or the cytoplasm. We employed heterologous reporter gene expression in the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii and the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum to experimentally test these predictions. 5-aminolevulinate synthase was located in the mitochondria in both transfection systems. In T. gondii, the two 5-aminolevulinate dehydratases were located in the cytosol, uroporphyrinogen synthase in the mitochondrion, and the two ferrochelatases in the plastid. In P. tricornutum, all remaining enzymes, from ALA-dehydratase to ferrochelatase, were placed either in the endoplasmic reticulum or in the periplastidial space.

The Role of Malaria Parasite Heat Shock Proteins in Protein Trafficking and Remodelling of Red Blood Cells

The genus Plasmodium comprises intracellular eukaryotic parasites that infect many vertebrate groups and cause deadly malaria disease in humans. The parasites employ a suite of heat shock proteins to help traffic other proteins to different compartments within their own cells and that of the host cells they parasitise. This review will cover the role of these chaperones in protein export and host cell modification in the asexual blood stage of the human parasite P. falciparum which is the most deadly and well-studied parasite species. We will examine the role chaperones play in the import of proteins into the secretory pathway from where they are escorted to the vacuole space surrounding the intraerythrocytic parasite. Here, other heat shock proteins unfold protein cargoes and extrude them into the red blood cell (RBC) cytosol from where additional chaperones of parasite and possibly host origin refold the cargo proteins and guide them to their final functional destinations within their RBC host cells. The secretory pathway also serves as a launch pad for proteins targeted to the non-photosynthetic apicoplast organelle of endosymbiotic origin, and the role of heat shock proteins in trafficking proteins here will be reviewed. Finally, the function of chaperones in protein trafficking into the mitochondrion, the remaining organelle of endosymbiotic origin, will be discussed.

The ZIP Code of Vesicle Trafficking in Apicomplexa: SEC1/Munc18 and SNARE Proteins

Apicomplexans are obligate intracellular parasites harboring three sets of unique secretory organelles termed micronemes, rhoptries, and dense granules that are dedicated to the establishment of infection in the host cell. Apicomplexans rely on the endolysosomal system to generate the secretory organelles and to ingest and digest host cell proteins. These parasites also possess a metabolically relevant secondary endosymbiotic organelle, the apicoplast, which relies on vesicular trafficking for correct incorporation of nuclear-encoded proteins into the organelle. Here, we demonstrate that the trafficking and destination of vesicles to the unique and specialized parasite compartments depend on SNARE proteins that interact with tethering factors. Specifically, all secreted proteins depend on the function of SLY1 at the Golgi. In addition to a critical role in trafficking of endocytosed host proteins, TgVps45 is implicated in the biogenesis of the inner membrane complex (alveoli) in both Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium falciparum, likely acting in a coordinated manner with Stx16 and Stx6. Finally, Stx12 localizes to the endosomal-like compartment and is involved in the trafficking of proteins to the apical secretory organelles rhoptries and micronemes as well as to the apicoplast.IMPORTANCE The phylum of Apicomplexa groups medically relevant parasites such as those responsible for malaria and toxoplasmosis. As members of the Alveolata superphylum, these protozoans possess specialized organelles in addition to those found in all members of the eukaryotic kingdom. Vesicular trafficking is the major route of communication between membranous organelles. Neither the molecular mechanism that allows communication between organelles nor the vesicular fusion events that underlie it are completely understood in Apicomplexa. Here, we assessed the function of SEC1/Munc18 and SNARE proteins to identify factors involved in the trafficking of vesicles between these various organelles. We show that SEC1/Munc18 in interaction with SNARE proteins allows targeting of vesicles to the inner membrane complex, prerhoptries, micronemes, apicoplast, and vacuolar compartment from the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, or endosomal-like compartment. These data provide an exciting look at the "ZIP code" of vesicular trafficking in apicomplexans, essential for precise organelle biogenesis, homeostasis, and inheritance.

CaaX-Like Protease of Cyanobacterial Origin Is Required for Complex Plastid Biogenesis in Malaria Parasites

Plasmodium parasites, which cause malaria, and related apicomplexans are important human and veterinary pathogens. These parasites represent a highly divergent and understudied branch of eukaryotes, and as such often defy the expectations set by model organisms. One striking example of unique apicomplexan biology is the apicoplast, an essential but nonphotosynthetic plastid derived from an unusual secondary (eukaryote-eukaryote) endosymbiosis. Endosymbioses are a major driver of cellular innovation, and apicoplast biogenesis pathways represent a hot spot for molecular evolution. We previously conducted an unbiased screen for apicoplast biogenesis genes in P. falciparum to uncover these essential and innovative pathways. Here, we validate a novel gene candidate from our screen and show that its role in apicoplast biogenesis does not match its functional annotation predicted by model eukaryotes. Our findings suggest that an uncharacterized chloroplast maintenance pathway has been reused for complex plastid biogenesis in this divergent branch of pathogens.

Plasmodium parasites and related apicomplexans contain an essential “complex plastid” organelle of secondary endosymbiotic origin, the apicoplast. Biogenesis of this complex plastid poses a unique challenge requiring evolution of new cellular machinery. We previously conducted a mutagenesis screen for essential apicoplast biogenesis genes to discover organellar pathways with evolutionary and biomedical significance. Here we validate and characterize a gene candidate from our screen, Pf3D7_0913500. Using a conditional knockdown strain, we show that Pf3D7_0913500 depletion causes growth inhibition that is rescued by the sole essential product of the apicoplast, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), and results in apicoplast loss. Because Pf3D7_0913500 had no previous functional annotation, we name it apicoplast-minus IPP-rescued 4 (AMR4). AMR4 has an annotated CaaX protease and bacteriocin processing (CPBP) domain, which in eukaryotes typically indicates a role in CaaX postprenylation processing. Indeed, AMR4 is the only putative CaaX-like protease in Plasmodium parasites which are known to require protein prenylation, and we confirm that the conserved catalytic residue of AMR4 (E352) is required for its apicoplast function. However, we unexpectedly find that AMR4 does not act in a CaaX postprenylation processing pathway in Plasmodium falciparum. Instead, we find that AMR4 is imported into the apicoplast and is derived from a cyanobacterial CPBP gene which was retained through both primary and secondary endosymbiosis. Our findings suggest that AMR4 is not a true CaaX protease, but instead it performs a conserved, uncharacterized chloroplast function that has been retained for complex plastid biogenesis.

There Is Treasure Everywhere: Reductive Plastid Evolution in Apicomplexa in Light of Their Close Relatives

The phylum Apicomplexa (Alveolates) comprises a group of host-associated protists, predominately intracellular parasites, including devastating parasites like Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of malaria. One of the more fascinating characteristics of Apicomplexa is their highly reduced (and occasionally lost) remnant plastid, termed the apicoplast. Four core metabolic pathways are retained in the apicoplast: heme synthesis, iron–sulfur cluster synthesis, isoprenoid synthesis, and fatty acid synthesis. It has been suggested that one or more of these pathways are essential for plastid and plastid genome retention. The past decade has witnessed the discovery of several apicomplexan relatives, and next-generation sequencing efforts are revealing that they retain variable plastid metabolic capacities. These data are providing clues about the core genes and pathways of reduced plastids, while at the same time further confounding our view on the evolutionary history of the apicoplast. Here, we examine the evolutionary history of the apicoplast, explore plastid metabolism in Apicomplexa and their close relatives, and propose that the differences among reduced plastids result from a game of endosymbiotic roulette. Continued exploration of the Apicomplexa and their relatives is sure to provide new insights into the evolution of the apicoplast and apicomplexans as a whole.