1
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Bimber BN, Sunshine J, McElfresh GW, Reed JS, Pathak R, Bateman KB, Hughes CM, Gilbride RM, Ford JC, Morrow D, Lifson JD, Sacha JB, Hansen SG, Picker LJ. Viral escape mutations do not account for non-protection from SIVmac239 challenge in RhCMV/SIV vaccinated rhesus macaques. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1444621. [PMID: 39170621 PMCID: PMC11336698 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1444621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) vaccines based upon 68-1 Rhesus Cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) vectors show remarkable protection against pathogenic SIVmac239 challenge. Across multiple independent rhesus macaque (RM) challenge studies, nearly 60% of vaccinated RM show early, complete arrest of SIVmac239 replication after effective challenge, whereas the remainder show progressive infection similar to controls. Here, we performed viral sequencing to determine whether the failure to control viral replication in non-protected RMs is associated with the acquisition of viral escape mutations. While low level viral mutations accumulated in all animals by 28 days-post-challenge, which is after the establishment of viral control in protected animals, the dominant circulating virus in virtually all unprotected RMs was nearly identical to the challenge stock, and there was no difference in mutation patterns between this cohort and unvaccinated controls. These data definitively demonstrate that viral mutation does not explain lack of viral control in RMs not protected by RhCMV/SIV vaccination. We further demonstrate that during chronic infection RhCMV/SIV vaccinated RMs do not acquire escape mutation in epitopes targeted by RhCMV/SIV, but instead display mutation in canonical MHC-Ia epitopes similar to unvaccinated RMs. This suggests that after the initial failure of viral control, unconventional T cell responses induced by 68-1 RhCMV/SIV vaccination do not exert strong selective pressure on systemically replicating SIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin N. Bimber
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Justine Sunshine
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - G. W. McElfresh
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Jason S. Reed
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Reese Pathak
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Katherine B. Bateman
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Colette M. Hughes
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Roxanne M. Gilbride
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Julia C. Ford
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - David Morrow
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Jeffrey D. Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Jonah B. Sacha
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Scott G. Hansen
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
| | - Louis J. Picker
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, United States
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2
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Malouli D, Tiwary M, Gilbride RM, Morrow DW, Hughes CM, Selseth A, Penney T, Castanha P, Wallace M, Yeung Y, Midgett M, Williams C, Reed J, Yu Y, Gao L, Yun G, Treaster L, Laughlin A, Lundy J, Tisoncik-Go J, Whitmore LS, Aye PP, Schiro F, Dufour JP, Papen CR, Taher H, Picker LJ, Früh K, Gale M, Maness NJ, Hansen SG, Barratt-Boyes S, Reed DS, Sacha JB. Cytomegalovirus vaccine vector-induced effector memory CD4 + T cells protect cynomolgus macaques from lethal aerosolized heterologous avian influenza challenge. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6007. [PMID: 39030218 PMCID: PMC11272155 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50345-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024] Open
Abstract
An influenza vaccine approach that overcomes the problem of viral sequence diversity and provides long-lived heterosubtypic protection is urgently needed to protect against pandemic influenza viruses. Here, to determine if lung-resident effector memory T cells induced by cytomegalovirus (CMV)-vectored vaccines expressing conserved internal influenza antigens could protect against lethal influenza challenge, we immunize Mauritian cynomolgus macaques (MCM) with cynomolgus CMV (CyCMV) vaccines expressing H1N1 1918 influenza M1, NP, and PB1 antigens (CyCMV/Flu), and challenge with heterologous, aerosolized avian H5N1 influenza. All six unvaccinated MCM died by seven days post infection with acute respiratory distress, while 54.5% (6/11) CyCMV/Flu-vaccinated MCM survived. Survival correlates with the magnitude of lung-resident influenza-specific CD4 + T cells prior to challenge. These data demonstrate that CD4 + T cells targeting conserved internal influenza proteins can protect against highly pathogenic heterologous influenza challenge and support further exploration of effector memory T cell-based vaccines for universal influenza vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Malouli
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Meenakshi Tiwary
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Roxanne M Gilbride
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - David W Morrow
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Colette M Hughes
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Andrea Selseth
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Toni Penney
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Priscila Castanha
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Megan Wallace
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Yulia Yeung
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Connor Williams
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Jason Reed
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Yun Yu
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Lina Gao
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Gabin Yun
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Luke Treaster
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | | | - Jennifer Tisoncik-Go
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Leanne S Whitmore
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Pyone P Aye
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Faith Schiro
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Jason P Dufour
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Courtney R Papen
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Husam Taher
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Louis J Picker
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Klaus Früh
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Michael Gale
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Nicholas J Maness
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Scott G Hansen
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | | | | | - Jonah B Sacha
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA.
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3
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Kim MC, De U, Borcherding N, Wang L, Paek J, Bhattacharyya I, Yu Q, Kolb R, Drashansky T, Thatayatikom A, Zhang W, Cha S. Single-cell transcriptomics unveil profiles and interplay of immune subsets in rare autoimmune childhood Sjögren's disease. Commun Biol 2024; 7:481. [PMID: 38641668 PMCID: PMC11031574 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06124-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Childhood Sjögren's disease represents critically unmet medical needs due to a complete lack of immunological and molecular characterizations. This study presents key immune cell subsets and their interactions in the periphery in childhood Sjögren's disease. Here we show that single-cell RNA sequencing identifies the subsets of IFN gene-enriched monocytes, CD4+ T effector memory, and XCL1+ NK cells as potential key players in childhood Sjögren's disease, and especially in those with recurrent parotitis, which is the chief symptom prompting clinical visits from young children. A unique cluster of monocytes with type I and II IFN-related genes is identified in childhood Sjögren's disease, compared to the age-matched control. In vitro regulatory T cell functional assay demonstrates intact functionality in childhood Sjögren's disease in contrast to reduced suppression in adult Sjögren's disease. Mapping this transcriptomic landscape and interplay of immune cell subsets will expedite the understanding of childhood Sjögren's disease pathogenesis and set the foundation for precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myung-Chul Kim
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- UF Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Diagnostic Laboratory Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju, 63243, Republic of Korea
- Research Institute of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju, 63243, Republic of Korea
- Center for Orphaned Autoimmune Disorders, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Umasankar De
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- UF Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Nicholas Borcherding
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- UF Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Joon Paek
- Center for Orphaned Autoimmune Disorders, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Indraneel Bhattacharyya
- Center for Orphaned Autoimmune Disorders, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Diagnostic Sciences, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Qing Yu
- The Forsyth Institute, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA
| | - Ryan Kolb
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- UF Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | | | | | - Weizhou Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
- UF Health Cancer Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
| | - Seunghee Cha
- Center for Orphaned Autoimmune Disorders, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Diagnostic Sciences, University of Florida College of Dentistry, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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4
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Grasberger P, Sondrini AR, Clayton KL. Harnessing immune cells to eliminate HIV reservoirs. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2024; 19:62-68. [PMID: 38167784 PMCID: PMC10908255 DOI: 10.1097/coh.0000000000000840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Despite decades of insights about how CD8 + T cells and natural killer (NK) cells contribute to natural control of infection, additional hurdles (mutational escape from cellular immunity, sequence diversity, and hard-to-access tissue reservoirs) will need to be overcome to develop a cure. In this review, we highlight recent findings of novel mechanisms of antiviral cellular immunity and discuss current strategies for therapeutic deisgn. RECENT FINDINGS Of note are the apparent converging roles of viral antigen-specific MHC-E-restricted CD8 + T cells and NK cells, interleukin (IL)-15 biologics to boost cytotoxicity, and broadly neutralizing antibodies in their native form or as anitbody fragments to neutralize virus and engage cellular immunity, respectively. Finally, renewed interest in myeloid cells as relevant viral reservoirs is an encouraging sign for designing inclusive therapeutic strategies. SUMMARY Several studies have shown promise in many preclinical models of disease, including simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)/SHIV infection in nonhuman primates and HIV infection in humanized mice. However, each model comes with its own limitations and may not fully predict human responses. We eagerly await the results of clinical trails assessing the efficacy of these strategies to achieve reductions in viral reservoirs, delay viral rebound, or ultimately elicit immune based control of infection without combination antiretroviral therapy (cART).
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Grasberger
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School
| | | | - Kiera L. Clayton
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School
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5
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Brochu HN, Smith E, Jeong S, Carlson M, Hansen SG, Tisoncik-Go J, Law L, Picker LJ, Gale M, Peng X. Pre-challenge gut microbial signature predicts RhCMV/SIV vaccine efficacy in rhesus macaques. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.27.582186. [PMID: 38464179 PMCID: PMC10925241 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.27.582186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Background RhCMV/SIV vaccines protect ∼59% of vaccinated rhesus macaques against repeated limiting-dose intra-rectal exposure with highly pathogenic SIVmac239M, but the exact mechanism responsible for the vaccine efficacy is not known. It is becoming evident that complex interactions exist between gut microbiota and the host immune system. Here we aimed to investigate if the rhesus gut microbiome impacts RhCMV/SIV vaccine-induced protection. Methods Three groups of 15 rhesus macaques naturally pre-exposed to RhCMV were vaccinated with RhCMV/SIV vaccines. Rectal swabs were collected longitudinally both before SIV challenge (after vaccination) and post challenge and were profiled using 16S rRNA based microbiome analysis. Results We identified ∼2,400 16S rRNA amplicon sequence variants (ASVs), representing potential bacterial species/strains. Global gut microbial profiles were strongly associated with each of the three vaccination groups, and all animals tended to maintain consistent profiles throughout the pre-challenge phase. Despite vaccination group differences, using newly developed compositional data analysis techniques we identified a common gut microbial signature predictive of vaccine protection outcome across the three vaccination groups. Part of this microbial signature persisted even after SIV challenge. We also observed a strong correlation between this microbial signature and an early signature derived from whole blood transcriptomes in the same animals. Conclusions Our findings indicate that changes in gut microbiomes are associated with RhCMV/SIV vaccine-induced protection and early host response to vaccination in rhesus macaques.
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6
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Kaur A, Vaccari M. Exploring HIV Vaccine Progress in the Pre-Clinical and Clinical Setting: From History to Future Prospects. Viruses 2024; 16:368. [PMID: 38543734 PMCID: PMC10974975 DOI: 10.3390/v16030368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) continues to pose a significant global health challenge, with millions of people affected and new cases emerging each year. While various treatment and prevention methods exist, including antiretroviral therapy and non-vaccine approaches, developing an effective vaccine remains the most crucial and cost-effective solution to combating the HIV epidemic. Despite significant advancements in HIV research, the HIV vaccine field has faced numerous challenges, and only one clinical trial has demonstrated a modest level of efficacy. This review delves into the history of HIV vaccines and the current efforts in HIV prevention, emphasizing pre-clinical vaccine development using the non-human primate model (NHP) of HIV infection. NHP models offer valuable insights into potential preventive strategies for combating HIV, and they play a vital role in informing and guiding the development of novel vaccine candidates before they can proceed to human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amitinder Kaur
- Division of Immunology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA;
- School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Monica Vaccari
- Division of Immunology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA 70433, USA;
- School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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7
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Maciel M, Amara RR, Bar KJ, Crotty S, Deeks SG, Duplessis C, Gaiha G, McElrath MJ, McMichael A, Palin A, Rutishauser R, Shapiro S, Smiley ST, D'Souza MP. Exploring synergies between B- and T-cell vaccine approaches to optimize immune responses against HIV-workshop report. NPJ Vaccines 2024; 9:39. [PMID: 38383616 PMCID: PMC10881492 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-024-00818-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Milton Maciel
- Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Rama R Amara
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Katharine J Bar
- Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Shane Crotty
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI), La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego (UCSD), La Jolla, CA, USA
- Division of HIV, Infectious Diseases, and Global Medicine, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Steven G Deeks
- Department of Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Christopher Duplessis
- Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Gaurav Gaiha
- Ragon Institute of Mass General, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - M Juliana McElrath
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Andrew McMichael
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Amy Palin
- Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Rachel Rutishauser
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Stuart Shapiro
- Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Stephen T Smiley
- Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - M Patricia D'Souza
- Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, USA.
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8
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Rosati M, Terpos E, Homan P, Bergamaschi C, Karaliota S, Ntanasis-Stathopoulos I, Devasundaram S, Bear J, Burns R, Bagratuni T, Trougakos IP, Dimopoulos MA, Pavlakis GN, Felber BK. Rapid transient and longer-lasting innate cytokine changes associated with adaptive immunity after repeated SARS-CoV-2 BNT162b2 mRNA vaccinations. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1292568. [PMID: 38090597 PMCID: PMC10711274 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1292568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Cytokines and chemokines play an important role in shaping innate and adaptive immunity in response to infection and vaccination. Systems serology identified immunological parameters predictive of beneficial response to the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine in COVID-19 infection-naïve volunteers, COVID-19 convalescent patients and transplant patients with hematological malignancies. Here, we examined the dynamics of the serum cytokine/chemokine responses after the 3rd BNT162b2 mRNA vaccination in a cohort of COVID-19 infection-naïve volunteers. Methods We measured serum cytokine and chemokine responses after the 3rd dose of the BNT162b2 mRNA (Pfizer/BioNtech) vaccine in COVID-19 infection-naïve individuals by a chemiluminescent assay and ELISA. Anti-Spike binding antibodies were measured by ELISA. Anti-Spike neutralizing antibodies were measured by a pseudotype assay. Results Comparison to responses found after the 1st and 2nd vaccinations showed persistence of the coordinated responses of several cytokine/chemokines including the previously identified rapid and transient IL-15, IFN-γ, CXCL10/IP-10, TNF-α, IL-6 signature. In contrast to the transient (24hrs) effect of the IL-15 signature, an inflammatory/anti-inflammatory cytokine signature (CCL2/MCP-1, CCL3/MIP-1α, CCL4/MIP-1β, CXCL8/IL-8, IL-1Ra) remained at higher levels up to one month after the 2nd and 3rd booster vaccinations, indicative of a state of longer-lasting innate immune change. We also identified a systemic transient increase of CXCL13 only after the 3rd vaccination, supporting stronger germinal center activity and the higher anti-Spike antibody responses. Changes of the IL-15 signature, and the inflammatory/anti-inflammatory cytokine profile correlated with neutralizing antibody levels also after the 3rd vaccination supporting their role as immune biomarkers for effective development of vaccine-induced humoral responses. Conclusion These data revealed that repeated SARS-Cov-2 BNT162b2 mRNA vaccination induces both rapid transient as well as longer-lasting systemic serum cytokine changes associated with innate and adaptive immune responses. Clinical trial registration Clinicaltrials.gov, identifier NCT04743388.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Rosati
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Evangelos Terpos
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Philip Homan
- Center for Cancer Research Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Cristina Bergamaschi
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Sevasti Karaliota
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD, United States
- Basic Science Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Ioannis Ntanasis-Stathopoulos
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Santhi Devasundaram
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Jenifer Bear
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Robert Burns
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Tina Bagratuni
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Ioannis P. Trougakos
- Department of Cell Biology and Biophysics, Faculty of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Meletios A. Dimopoulos
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - George N. Pavlakis
- Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD, United States
| | - Barbara K. Felber
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD, United States
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9
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Picker LJ, Lifson JD, Gale M, Hansen SG, Früh K. Programming cytomegalovirus as an HIV vaccine. Trends Immunol 2023; 44:287-304. [PMID: 36894436 PMCID: PMC10089689 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2023.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
The initial development of cytomegalovirus (CMV) as a vaccine vector for HIV/simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) was predicated on its potential to pre-position high-frequency, effector-differentiated, CD8+ T cells in tissues for immediate immune interception of nascent primary infection. This goal was achieved and also led to the unexpected discoveries that non-human primate (NHP) CMVs can be programmed to differentially elicit CD8+ T cell responses that recognize viral peptides via classical MHC-Ia, and/or MHC-II, and/or MHC-E, and that MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cell responses can uniquely mediate stringent arrest and subsequent clearance of highly pathogenic SIV, an unprecedented type of vaccine-mediated protection. These discoveries delineate CMV vector-elicited MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells as a functionally distinct T cell response with the potential for superior efficacy against HIV-1, and possibly other infectious agents or cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis J Picker
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA.
| | - Jeffrey D Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Michael Gale
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Scott G Hansen
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Klaus Früh
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
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10
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Hansen SG, Womack JL, Perez W, Schmidt KA, Marshall E, Iyer RF, Cleveland Rubeor H, Otero CE, Taher H, Vande Burgt NH, Barfield R, Randall KT, Morrow D, Hughes CM, Selseth AN, Gilbride RM, Ford JC, Caposio P, Tarantal AF, Chan C, Malouli D, Barry PA, Permar SR, Picker LJ, Früh K. Late gene expression-deficient cytomegalovirus vectors elicit conventional T cells that do not protect against SIV. JCI Insight 2023; 8:e164692. [PMID: 36749635 PMCID: PMC10070102 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.164692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhesus cytomegalovirus-based (RhCMV-based) vaccine vectors induce immune responses that protect ~60% of rhesus macaques (RMs) from SIVmac239 challenge. This efficacy depends on induction of effector memory-based (EM-biased) CD8+ T cells recognizing SIV peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex-E (MHC-E) instead of MHC-Ia. The phenotype, durability, and efficacy of RhCMV/SIV-elicited cellular immune responses were maintained when vector spread was severely reduced by deleting the antihost intrinsic immunity factor phosphoprotein 71 (pp71). Here, we examined the impact of an even more stringent attenuation strategy on vector-induced immune protection against SIV. Fusion of the FK506-binding protein (FKBP) degradation domain to Rh108, the orthologue of the essential human CMV (HCMV) late gene transcription factor UL79, generated RhCMV/SIV vectors that conditionally replicate only when the FK506 analog Shield-1 is present. Despite lacking in vivo dissemination and reduced innate and B cell responses to vaccination, Rh108-deficient 68-1 RhCMV/SIV vectors elicited high-frequency, durable, EM-biased, SIV-specific T cell responses in RhCMV-seropositive RMs at doses of ≥ 1 × 106 PFU. Strikingly, elicited CD8+ T cells exclusively targeted MHC-Ia-restricted epitopes and failed to protect against SIVmac239 challenge. Thus, Rh108-dependent late gene expression is required for both induction of MHC-E-restricted T cells and protection against SIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott G. Hansen
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Jennie L. Womack
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Wilma Perez
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | | | - Emily Marshall
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Ravi F. Iyer
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Hillary Cleveland Rubeor
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Claire E. Otero
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Husam Taher
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Nathan H. Vande Burgt
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Richard Barfield
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Center for Human Systems Immunology, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kurt T. Randall
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - David Morrow
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Colette M. Hughes
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Andrea N. Selseth
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Roxanne M. Gilbride
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Julia C. Ford
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Patrizia Caposio
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Alice F. Tarantal
- California National Primate Research Center, UCD, Davis, California, USA
- Departments of Pediatrics and Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, UCD, Davis, California, USA
| | - Cliburn Chan
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Center for Human Systems Immunology, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Daniel Malouli
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Peter A. Barry
- California National Primate Research Center, UCD, Davis, California, USA
| | - Sallie R. Permar
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Louis J. Picker
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Klaus Früh
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
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11
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Brochu H, Wang R, Tollison T, Pyo CW, Thomas A, Tseng E, Law L, Picker LJ, Gale M, Geraghty DE, Peng X. Alternative splicing and genetic variation of mhc-e: implications for rhesus cytomegalovirus-based vaccines. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1387. [PMID: 36536032 PMCID: PMC9762870 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-04344-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV)-based vaccination against Simian Immunodeficiency virus (SIV) elicits MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells that stringently control SIV infection in ~55% of vaccinated rhesus macaques (RM). However, it is unclear how accurately the RM model reflects HLA-E immunobiology in humans. Using long-read sequencing, we identified 16 Mamu-E isoforms and all Mamu-E splicing junctions were detected among HLA-E isoforms in humans. We also obtained the complete Mamu-E genomic sequences covering the full coding regions of 59 RM from a RhCMV/SIV vaccine study. The Mamu-E gene was duplicated in 32 (54%) of 59 RM. Among four groups of Mamu-E alleles: three ~5% divergent full-length allele groups (G1, G2, G2_LTR) and a fourth monomorphic group (G3) with a deletion encompassing the canonical Mamu-E exon 6, the presence of G2_LTR alleles was significantly (p = 0.02) associated with the lack of RhCMV/SIV vaccine protection. These genomic resources will facilitate additional MHC-E targeted translational research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayden Brochu
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, 27607, USA
- Bioinformatics Graduate Program, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Ruihan Wang
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Tammy Tollison
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, 27607, USA
| | - Chul-Woo Pyo
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | - Alexander Thomas
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA
| | | | - Lynn Law
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Louis J Picker
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, 97006, USA
| | - Michael Gale
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Daniel E Geraghty
- Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, 98109, USA.
| | - Xinxia Peng
- Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, 27607, USA.
- Bioinformatics Graduate Program, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA.
- Bioinformatics Research Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA.
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12
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New vector and vaccine platforms: mRNA, DNA, viral vectors. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2022; 17:338-344. [DOI: 10.1097/coh.0000000000000763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Malouli D, Gilbride RM, Wu HL, Hwang JM, Maier N, Hughes CM, Newhouse D, Morrow D, Ventura AB, Law L, Tisoncik-Go J, Whitmore L, Smith E, Golez I, Chang J, Reed JS, Waytashek C, Weber W, Taher H, Uebelhoer LS, Womack JL, McArdle MR, Gao J, Papen CR, Lifson JD, Burwitz BJ, Axthelm MK, Smedley J, Früh K, Gale M, Picker LJ, Hansen SG, Sacha JB. Cytomegalovirus-vaccine-induced unconventional T cell priming and control of SIV replication is conserved between primate species. Cell Host Microbe 2022; 30:1207-1218.e7. [PMID: 35981532 PMCID: PMC9927879 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2022.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Strain 68-1 rhesus cytomegalovirus expressing simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) antigens (RhCMV/SIV) primes MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells that control SIV replication in 50%-60% of the vaccinated rhesus macaques. Whether this unconventional SIV-specific immunity and protection is unique to rhesus macaques or RhCMV or is intrinsic to CMV remains unknown. Here, using cynomolgus CMV vectors expressing SIV antigens (CyCMV/SIV) and Mauritian cynomolgus macaques, we demonstrate that the induction of MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells requires matching CMV to its host species. RhCMV does not elicit MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells in cynomolgus macaques. However, cynomolgus macaques vaccinated with species-matched 68-1-like CyCMV/SIV mounted MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells, and half of the vaccinees stringently controlled SIV post-challenge. Protected animals manifested a vaccine-induced IL-15 transcriptomic signature that is associated with efficacy in rhesus macaques. These findings demonstrate that the ability of species-matched CMV vectors to elicit MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cells that are required for anti-SIV efficacy is conserved in nonhuman primates, and these data support the development of HCMV/HIV for a prophylactic HIV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Malouli
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Roxanne M Gilbride
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Helen L Wu
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Joseph M Hwang
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Nicholas Maier
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Colette M Hughes
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Daniel Newhouse
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - David Morrow
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Abigail B Ventura
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Lynn Law
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Jennifer Tisoncik-Go
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Leanne Whitmore
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Elise Smith
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Inah Golez
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Jean Chang
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Jason S Reed
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Courtney Waytashek
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Whitney Weber
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Husam Taher
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Luke S Uebelhoer
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Jennie L Womack
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Matthew R McArdle
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Junwei Gao
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Courtney R Papen
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701, USA
| | - Benjamin J Burwitz
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Michael K Axthelm
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Jeremy Smedley
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Klaus Früh
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Michael Gale
- Center for Innate Immunity and Immune Disease, Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Louis J Picker
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
| | - Scott G Hansen
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA.
| | - Jonah B Sacha
- Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA; Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, 97006, USA.
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14
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Hansen SG, Hancock MH, Malouli D, Marshall EE, Hughes CM, Randall KT, Morrow D, Ford JC, Gilbride RM, Selseth AN, Trethewy RE, Bishop LM, Oswald K, Shoemaker R, Berkemeier B, Bosche WJ, Hull M, Silipino L, Nekorchuk M, Busman-Sahay K, Estes JD, Axthelm MK, Smedley J, Shao D, Edlefsen PT, Lifson JD, Früh K, Nelson JA, Picker LJ. Myeloid cell tropism enables MHC-E-restricted CD8 + T cell priming and vaccine efficacy by the RhCMV/SIV vaccine. Sci Immunol 2022; 7:eabn9301. [PMID: 35714200 PMCID: PMC9387538 DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.abn9301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The strain 68-1 rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV)-based vaccine for simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) can stringently protect rhesus macaques (RMs) from SIV challenge by arresting viral replication early in primary infection. This vaccine elicits unconventional SIV-specific CD8+ T cells that recognize epitopes presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-II and MHC-E instead of MHC-Ia. Although RhCMV/SIV vaccines based on strains that only elicit MHC-II- and/or MHC-Ia-restricted CD8+ T cells do not protect against SIV, it remains unclear whether MHC-E-restricted T cells are directly responsible for protection and whether these responses can be separated from the MHC-II-restricted component. Using host microRNA (miR)-mediated vector tropism restriction, we show that the priming of MHC-II and MHC-E epitope-targeted responses depended on vector infection of different nonoverlapping cell types in RMs. Selective inhibition of RhCMV infection in myeloid cells with miR-142-mediated tropism restriction eliminated MHC-E epitope-targeted CD8+ T cell priming, yielding an exclusively MHC-II epitope-targeted response. Inhibition with the endothelial cell-selective miR-126 eliminated MHC-II epitope-targeted CD8+ T cell priming, yielding an exclusively MHC-E epitope-targeted response. Dual miR-142 + miR-126-mediated tropism restriction reverted CD8+ T cell responses back to conventional MHC-Ia epitope targeting. Although the magnitude and differentiation state of these CD8+ T cell responses were generally similar, only the vectors programmed to elicit MHC-E-restricted CD8+ T cell responses provided protection against SIV challenge, directly demonstrating the essential role of these responses in RhCMV/SIV vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott G. Hansen
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Meaghan H. Hancock
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Daniel Malouli
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Emily E. Marshall
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Colette M. Hughes
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Kurt T. Randall
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - David Morrow
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Julia C. Ford
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Roxanne M. Gilbride
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Andrea N. Selseth
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Renee Espinosa Trethewy
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Lindsey M Bishop
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Kelli Oswald
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Rebecca Shoemaker
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Brian Berkemeier
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - William J. Bosche
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Michael Hull
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Lorna Silipino
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Michael Nekorchuk
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Kathleen Busman-Sahay
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Jacob D. Estes
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Michael K. Axthelm
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Jeremy Smedley
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Danica Shao
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Paul T. Edlefsen
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Jeffrey D. Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD 21702
| | - Klaus Früh
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Jay A. Nelson
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
| | - Louis J. Picker
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, 97006, USA
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15
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Izmirly AM, Pelletier AN, Connors J, Taramangalam B, Alturki SO, Gordon EA, Alturki SO, Mell JC, Swaminathan G, Karthik V, Kutzler MA, Kallas EG, Sekaly RP, Haddad EK. Pre-vaccination frequency of circulatory Tfh is associated with robust immune response to TV003 dengue vaccine. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1009903. [PMID: 35061851 PMCID: PMC8809550 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been estimated that more than 390 million people are infected with Dengue virus every year; around 96 millions of these infections result in clinical pathologies. To date, there is only one licensed viral vector-based Dengue virus vaccine CYD-TDV approved for use in dengue endemic areas. While initially approved for administration independent of serostatus, the current guidance only recommends the use of this vaccine for seropositive individuals. Therefore, there is a critical need for investigating the influence of Dengue virus serostatus and immunological mechanisms that influence vaccine outcome. Here, we provide comprehensive evaluation of sero-status and host immune factors that correlate with robust immune responses to a Dengue virus vector based tetravalent vaccine (TV003) in a Phase II clinical cohort of human participants. We observed that sero-positive individuals demonstrate a much stronger immune response to the TV003 vaccine. Our multi-layered immune profiling revealed that sero-positive subjects have increased baseline/pre-vaccination frequencies of circulating T follicular helper (cTfh) cells and the Tfh related chemokine CXCL13/BLC. Importantly, this baseline/pre-vaccination cTfh profile correlated with the vaccinees' ability to launch neutralizing antibody response against all four sero-types of Dengue virus, an important endpoint for Dengue vaccine clinical trials. Overall, we provide novel insights into the favorable cTfh related immune status that persists in Dengue virus sero-positive individuals that correlate with their ability to mount robust vaccine specific immune responses. Such detailed interrogation of cTfh cell biology in the context of clinical vaccinology will help uncover mechanisms and targets for favorable immuno-modulatory agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah M. Izmirly
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | | | - Jennifer Connors
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Bhavani Taramangalam
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Sawsan O. Alturki
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Emma A. Gordon
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Sana O. Alturki
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Joshua C. Mell
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Gokul Swaminathan
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Vaccine Innovation, Boehringer Ingelheim, Lyon, France
| | - Vivin Karthik
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Michele A. Kutzler
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Esper G. Kallas
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, University of São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rafick-Pierre Sekaly
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Elias K. Haddad
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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16
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Conlon K, Watson DC, Waldmann TA, Valentin A, Bergamaschi C, Felber BK, Peer CJ, Figg WD, Potter EL, Roederer M, McNeel DG, Thompson JA, Gupta S, Leidner R, Wang-Gillam A, Parikh NS, Long D, Kurtulus S, Ho Lee L, Chowdhury NR, Bender F, Pavlakis GN. Phase I study of single agent NIZ985, a recombinant heterodimeric IL-15 agonist, in adult patients with metastatic or unresectable solid tumors. J Immunother Cancer 2021; 9:jitc-2021-003388. [PMID: 34799399 PMCID: PMC8606766 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2021-003388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background NIZ985 is a recombinant heterodimer of physiologically active interleukin (IL-)15 and IL-15 receptor alpha. In preclinical models, NIZ985 promotes cytotoxic lymphocyte proliferation, killing function, and organ/tumor infiltration, with resultant anticancer effects. In this first-in-human study, we assessed the safety, pharmacokinetics, and immune effects of NIZ985 in patients with metastatic or unresectable solid tumors. Methods Single agent NIZ985 dose escalation data are reported from a phase I dose escalation/expansion study of NIZ985 as monotherapy. Adult patients (N=14) received 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2 or 4 µg/kg subcutaneous NIZ985 three times weekly (TIW) for the first 2 weeks of each 28-day cycle, in an accelerated 3+3 dose escalation trial design. IL-15 and endogenous cytokines were monitored by ELISA and multiplexed electrochemiluminescent assays. Multiparameter flow cytometry assessed the frequency, phenotype and proliferation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Preliminary antitumor activity was assessed by overall response rate (Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors V.1.1). Results As of March 2, 2020, median treatment duration was 7.5 weeks (range 1.1–77.1). Thirteen patients had discontinued and one (uveal melanoma) remains on treatment with stable disease. Best clinical response was stable disease (3 of 14 patients; 21%). The most frequent adverse events (AEs) were circular erythematous injection site reactions (100%), chills (71%), fatigue (57%), and fever (50%). Treatment-related grade 3/4 AEs occurred in six participants (43%); treatment-related serious AEs (SAEs) in three (21%). The per-protocol maximum tolerated dose was not reached. Pharmacokinetic accumulation of serum IL-15 in the first week was followed by significantly lower levels in week 2, likely due to more rapid cytokine consumption by an expanding lymphocyte pool. NIZ985 treatment was associated with increases in several cytokines, including interferon (IFN)-γ, IL-18, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10, and tumor necrosis factor-β, plus significant induction of cytotoxic lymphocyte proliferation (including natural killer and CD8+ T cells), increased CD16+ monocytes, and increased CD163+ macrophages at injection sites. Conclusions Subcutaneous NIZ985 TIW was generally well tolerated in patients with advanced cancer and produced immune activation paralleling preclinical observations, with induction of IFN-γ and proliferation of cytotoxic lymphocytes. Due to delayed SAEs at the two highest dose levels, administration is being changed to once-weekly in a revised protocol, as monotherapy and combined with checkpoint inhibitor spartalizumab. These alterations are expected to maximize the potential of NIZ985 as a novel immunotherapy. Trial registration number NCT02452268.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Conlon
- Lymphoid Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Dionysios C Watson
- Human Retrovirus Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, Maryland, USA.,University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Thomas A Waldmann
- Lymphoid Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Antonio Valentin
- Human Retrovirus Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Cristina Bergamaschi
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Barbara K Felber
- Human Retrovirus Pathogenesis Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Cody J Peer
- Clinical Pharmacology Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - William D Figg
- Clinical Pharmacology Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - E Lake Potter
- Vaccine Research Center, NIAID, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Douglas G McNeel
- Carbone Cancer Center, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | | | - Sumati Gupta
- Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Rom Leidner
- Earle A Chiles Research Institute, Providence Cancer Institute, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Andrea Wang-Gillam
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in Saint Louis, St Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Nehal S Parikh
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Debby Long
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sema Kurtulus
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Lang Ho Lee
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Florent Bender
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - George N Pavlakis
- Human Retrovirus Section, Vaccine Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, Maryland, USA
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17
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D'Souza MP, Palin AC, Calder T, Golding H, Kleinstein SH, Milliken EL, O'Connor D, Tomaras G, Warren J, Boggiano C. Mind the gap from research laboratory to clinic: Challenges and opportunities for next-generation assays in human diseases. Vaccine 2021; 39:5233-5239. [PMID: 34366145 PMCID: PMC8343370 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.07.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 07/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Modern vaccinology has experienced major conceptual and technological advances over the past 30 years. These include atomic-level structures driving immunogen design, new vaccine delivery methods, powerful adjuvants, and novel animal models. In addition, utilizing advanced assays to learn how the immune system senses a pathogen and orchestrates protective immunity has been critical in the design of effective vaccines and therapeutics. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases of the National Institutes of Health convened a workshop in September 2020 focused on next generation assays for vaccine development (Table 1). The workshop focused on four critical pathogens: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-which have no licensed vaccines-and tuberculosis (TB) and influenza-both of which are in critical need of improved vaccines. The goal was to share progress and lessons learned, and to identify any commonalities that can be leveraged to design vaccines and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Patricia D'Souza
- Vaccine Clinical Research Branch, Vaccine Research Program, Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD, USA.
| | - Amy C Palin
- Vaccine Clinical Research Branch, Vaccine Research Program, Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Thomas Calder
- Office of the Director, Vaccine Research Program, Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Hana Golding
- Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Steven H Kleinstein
- Interdepartmental Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Pathology and Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - David O'Connor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Georgia Tomaras
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Jon Warren
- Pre-clinical Research and Development Branch, Vaccine Research Program, Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Cesar Boggiano
- Pre-clinical Research and Development Branch, Vaccine Research Program, Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD, USA
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18
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Méndez-Lagares G, Chin N, Chang WW, Lee J, Rosás-Umbert M, Kieu HT, Merriam D, Lu W, Kim S, Adamson L, Brander C, Luciw PA, Barry PA, Hartigan-O’Connor DJ. Cytomegalovirus mediates expansion of IL-15-responsive innate-memory cells with SIV killing function. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:148542. [PMID: 34153005 PMCID: PMC8321572 DOI: 10.1172/jci148542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Interindividual immune variability is driven predominantly by environmental factors, including exposure to chronic infectious agents such as cytomegalovirus (CMV). We investigated the effects of rhesus CMV (RhCMV) on composition and function of the immune system in young macaques. Within months of infection, RhCMV was associated with impressive changes in antigen presenting cells, T cells, and NK cells-and marked expansion of innate-memory CD8+ T cells. These cells express high levels of NKG2A/C and the IL-2 and IL-15 receptor beta chain, CD122. IL-15 was sufficient to drive differentiation of the cells in vitro and in vivo. Expanded NKG2A/C+CD122+CD8+ T cells in RhCMV-infected macaques, but not their NKG2-negative counterparts, were endowed with cytotoxicity against class I-deficient K562 targets and prompt IFN-γ production in response to stimulation with IL-12 and IL-18. Because RhCMV clone 68-1 forms the viral backbone of RhCMV-vectored SIV vaccines, we also investigated immune changes following administration of RhCMV 68-1-vectored SIV vaccines. These vaccines led to impressive expansion of NKG2A/C+CD8+ T cells with capacity to inhibit SIV replication ex vivo. Thus, CMV infection and CMV-vectored vaccination drive expansion of functional innate-like CD8 cells via host IL-15 production, suggesting that innate-memory expansion could be achieved by other vaccine platforms expressing IL-15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gema Méndez-Lagares
- California National Primate Research Center
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
| | - Ning Chin
- California National Primate Research Center
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
| | - W.L. William Chang
- California National Primate Research Center
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
| | - Jaewon Lee
- Graduate Group in Immunology, and
- Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | | | - Hung T. Kieu
- California National Primate Research Center
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
| | - David Merriam
- California National Primate Research Center
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
| | - Wenze Lu
- California National Primate Research Center
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
| | - Sungjin Kim
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
- Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Lourdes Adamson
- Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Christian Brander
- IrsiCaixa - AIDS Research Institute, Badalona, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat de Vic-Universitat Central de Catalunya (UVic-UCC), Vic, Barcelona, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paul A. Luciw
- California National Primate Research Center
- Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Peter A. Barry
- California National Primate Research Center
- Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Dennis J. Hartigan-O’Connor
- California National Primate Research Center
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
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