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Gaál Z. Role of microRNAs in Immune Regulation with Translational and Clinical Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1942. [PMID: 38339220 PMCID: PMC10856342 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are 19-23 nucleotide long, evolutionarily conserved noncoding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. In this review, involvement of miRNAs is summarized in the differentiation and function of immune cells, in anti-infective immune responses, immunodeficiencies and autoimmune diseases. Roles of miRNAs in anticancer immunity and in the transplantation of solid organs and hematopoietic stem cells are also discussed. Major focus is put on the translational clinical applications of miRNAs, including the establishment of noninvasive biomarkers for differential diagnosis and prediction of prognosis. Patient selection and response prediction to biological therapy is one of the most promising fields of application. Replacement or inhibition of miRNAs has enormous therapeutic potential, with constantly expanding possibilities. Although important challenges still await solutions, evaluation of miRNA fingerprints may contribute to an increasingly personalized management of immune dysregulation with a remarkable reduction in toxicity and treatment side effects. More detailed knowledge of the molecular effects of physical exercise and nutrition on the immune system may facilitate self-tailored lifestyle recommendations and advances in prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsuzsanna Gaál
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 98 Nagyerdei krt, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
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2
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Carr DJJ, Filiberti A, Gmyrek GB. Complement Suppresses the Initial Type 1 Interferon Response to Ocular Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection in Mice. Pathogens 2024; 13:74. [PMID: 38251381 PMCID: PMC10820508 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13010074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The complement system (CS) contributes to the initial containment of viral and bacterial pathogens and clearance of dying cells in circulation. We previously reported mice deficient in complement component 3 (C3KO mice) were more sensitive than wild-type (WT) mice to ocular HSV-1 infection, as measured by a reduction in cumulative survival and elevated viral titers in the nervous system but not the cornea between days three and seven post infection (pi). The present study was undertaken to determine if complement deficiency impacted virus replication and associated changes in inflammation at earlier time points in the cornea. C3KO mice were found to possess significantly (p < 0.05) less infectious virus in the cornea at 24 h pi that corresponded with a decrease in HSV-1 lytic gene expression at 12 and 24 h pi compared to WT animals. Flow cytometry acquisition found no differences in the myeloid cell populations residing in the cornea including total macrophage and neutrophil populations at 24 h pi with minimal infiltrating cell populations detected at the 12 h pi time point. Analysis of cytokine and chemokine content in the cornea measured at 12 and 24 h pi revealed that only CCL3 (MIP-1α) was found to be different between WT and C3KO mice with >2-fold increased levels (p < 0.05, ANOVA and Tukey's post hoc t-test) in the cornea of WT mice at 12 h pi. C3KO mouse resistance to HSV-1 infection at the early time points correlated with a significant increase in type I interferon (IFN) gene expression including IFN-α1 and IFN-β and downstream effector genes including tetherin and RNase L (p < 0.05, Mann-Whitney rank order test). These results suggest early activation of the CS interferes with the induction of the type I IFN response and leads to a transient increase in virus replication following corneal HSV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J. J. Carr
- Department of Ophthalmology, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (A.F.); (G.B.G.)
| | - Adrian Filiberti
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (A.F.); (G.B.G.)
| | - Grzegorz B. Gmyrek
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (A.F.); (G.B.G.)
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Naqvi RA, Valverde A, Yadavalli T, Bobat FI, Capistrano KJ, Shukla D, Naqvi AR. Viral MicroRNAs in Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Pathobiology. Curr Pharm Des 2024; 30:649-665. [PMID: 38347772 DOI: 10.2174/0113816128286469240129100313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Simplexvirus humanalpha1 (Herpes simplex virus type 1 [HSV-1]) infects millions of people globally, manifesting as vesiculo-ulcerative lesions of the oral or genital mucosa. After primary infection, the virus establishes latency in the peripheral neurons and reactivates sporadically in response to various environmental and genetic factors. A unique feature of herpesviruses is their ability to encode tiny noncoding RNAs called microRNA (miRNAs). Simplexvirus humanalpha1 encodes eighteen miRNA precursors that generate twentyseven different mature miRNA sequences. Unique Simplexvirus humanalpha1 miRNAs repertoire is expressed in lytic and latent stages and exhibits expressional disparity in various cell types and model systems, suggesting their key pathological functions. This review will focus on elucidating the mechanisms underlying the regulation of host-virus interaction by HSV-1 encoded viral miRNAs. Numerous studies have demonstrated sequence- specific targeting of both viral and host transcripts by Simplexvirus humanalpha1 miRNAs. While these noncoding RNAs predominantly target viral genes involved in viral life cycle switch, they regulate host genes involved in antiviral immunity, thereby facilitating viral evasion and lifelong viral persistence inside the host. Expression of Simplexvirus humanalpha1 miRNAs has been associated with disease progression and resolution. Systemic circulation and stability of viral miRNAs compared to viral mRNAs can be harnessed to utilize their potential as diagnostic and prognostic markers. Moreover, functional inhibition of these enigmatic molecules may allow us to devise strategies that have therapeutic significance to contain Simplexvirus humanalpha1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raza Ali Naqvi
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Araceli Valverde
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Tejabhiram Yadavalli
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Medical Center, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Fatima Ismail Bobat
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Medical Center, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Kristelle J Capistrano
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Medical Center, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
| | - Afsar R Naqvi
- Department of Periodontics, College of Dentistry, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60607, USA
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Ma H, Chen T, Li C, Xu H, Feng Q, Su Y, Cai J, Zhu Q, Liu F, Hu L. Metabolic signatures of tear extracellular vesicles caused by herpes simplex keratitis. Ocul Surf 2024; 31:21-30. [PMID: 38122863 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2023.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Herpes simplex keratitis (HSK), caused by type 1 herpes simplex virus (HSV) reactivation, is a severe infectious disease that leads to vision loss. HSV can trigger metabolic reprogramming in the host cell and change the extracellular vesicles (EV) cargos; however, little is known about the EV metabolic signatures during ocular HSV infection. Here, we aimed to depict the EV-associated metabolic landscape in HSK patients' tears. METHODS We collected 82 samples from 41 participants with unilateral HSK (contralateral unaffected tears were set as negative control), including subtype cohorts of 13 epithelial, 20 stromal, and 8 endothelial HSK. We isolated tear EVs via our previously established platform and conducted metabolic analysis using LC-MS/MS. The metabolic signatures for recognizing HSK and subtypes were assessed through differential analysis and machine learning algorithms. RESULTS Hypopsia and increased extracellular CD63 levels were observed in affected eyes. We identified 339 metabolites based on sEVs isolated from tears. Differential analysis revealed alterations in energy and amino acid metabolism, as well as the infectious microenvironment. Furthermore, we observed dysregulated metabolite such as methyldopa, which is associated with inappropriate neovascularization and corneal sensation loss, contributing to the HSK severity particularly in the stromal subtype. Moreover, machine learning classification also suggested a set of EV metabolic signatures that have potential for pan-keratitis detection. CONCLUSIONS Our findings demonstrate that tear EV metabolites can serve as valuable indicators for comprehending the underlying pathological mechanisms. This knowledge is expected to facilitate the development of liquid biopsy means and therapeutic target discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huixiang Ma
- National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China; National Engineering Research Center of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Tucan Chen
- National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China; The Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics of MOE at Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics-Hubei Bioinformatics & Molecular Imaging Key Laboratory, Systems Biology Theme, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Chengxu Li
- National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Hao Xu
- National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Qingyu Feng
- National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Yunfei Su
- The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Jianqiu Cai
- The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Qingfu Zhu
- National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China; National Engineering Research Center of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Fei Liu
- National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China; National Engineering Research Center of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, 02115, MA, USA.
| | - Liang Hu
- National Clinical Research Center for Ocular Diseases, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China; National Engineering Research Center of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325027, China.
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Salazar S, Luong KTY, Koyuncu OO. Cell Intrinsic Determinants of Alpha Herpesvirus Latency and Pathogenesis in the Nervous System. Viruses 2023; 15:2284. [PMID: 38140525 PMCID: PMC10747186 DOI: 10.3390/v15122284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Alpha herpesvirus infections (α-HVs) are widespread, affecting more than 70% of the adult human population. Typically, the infections start in the mucosal epithelia, from which the viral particles invade the axons of the peripheral nervous system. In the nuclei of the peripheral ganglia, α-HVs establish a lifelong latency and eventually undergo multiple reactivation cycles. Upon reactivation, viral progeny can move into the nerves, back out toward the periphery where they entered the organism, or they can move toward the central nervous system (CNS). This latency-reactivation cycle is remarkably well controlled by the intricate actions of the intrinsic and innate immune responses of the host, and finely counteracted by the viral proteins in an effort to co-exist in the population. If this yin-yang- or Nash-equilibrium-like balance state is broken due to immune suppression or genetic mutations in the host response factors particularly in the CNS, or the presence of other pathogenic stimuli, α-HV reactivations might lead to life-threatening pathologies. In this review, we will summarize the molecular virus-host interactions starting from mucosal epithelia infections leading to the establishment of latency in the PNS and to possible CNS invasion by α-HVs, highlighting the pathologies associated with uncontrolled virus replication in the NS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Orkide O. Koyuncu
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine and Center for Virus Research, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; (S.S.); (K.T.Y.L.)
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Roe K. Pathogen regulatory RNA usage enables chronic infections, T-cell exhaustion and accelerated T-cell exhaustion. Mol Cell Biochem 2023; 478:2505-2516. [PMID: 36941498 PMCID: PMC10027582 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-023-04680-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Pathogens evade or disable cellular immune defenses using regulatory ribonucleic acids (RNAs), including microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs. Pathogenic usage of regulatory RNA enables chronic infections. Chronic infections, using host regulatory RNAs and/or creating pathogenic regulatory RNAs against cellular defenses, can cause T-cell exhaustion and latent pathogen reactivations. Concurrent pathogen infections of cells enable several possibilities. A first pathogen can cause an accelerated T-cell exhaustion for a second pathogen cellular infection. Accelerated T-cell exhaustion for the second pathogen weakens T-cell targeting of the second pathogen and enables a first-time infection by the second pathogen to replicate quickly and extensively. This can induce a large antibody population, which may be inadequately targeted against the second pathogen. Accelerated T-cell exhaustion can explain the relatively short median and average times from diagnosis to mortality in some viral epidemics, e.g., COVID-19, where the second pathogen can lethally overwhelm individuals' immune defenses. Alternatively, if an individual survives, the second pathogen could induce a very high titer of antigen-antibody immune complexes. If the antigen-antibody immune complex titer quickly becomes very high, it can exceed the immune system's phagocytic capability in immuno-deficient individuals, resulting in a Type III hypersensitivity immune reaction. Accelerated T-cell exhaustion in immuno-deficient individuals can be a fundamental cause of several hyperinflammatory diseases and autoimmune diseases. This would be possible when impaired follicular helper CD4+ T-cell assistance to germinal center B-cell somatic hypermutation, affinity maturation and isotype switching of antibodies results in high titers of inadequate antibodies, and this initiates a Type III hypersensitivity immune reaction with proteinase releases which express or expose autoantigens.
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Bauer AN, Majumdar N, Williams F, Rajput S, Pokhrel LR, Cook PP, Akula SM. MicroRNAs: Small but Key Players in Viral Infections and Immune Responses to Viral Pathogens. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1334. [PMID: 37887044 PMCID: PMC10604607 DOI: 10.3390/biology12101334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Since the discovery of microRNAs (miRNAs) in C. elegans in 1993, the field of miRNA research has grown steeply. These single-stranded non-coding RNA molecules canonically work at the post-transcriptional phase to regulate protein expression. miRNAs are known to regulate viral infection and the ensuing host immune response. Evolving research suggests miRNAs are assets in the discovery and investigation of therapeutics and diagnostics. In this review, we succinctly summarize the latest findings in (i) mechanisms underpinning miRNA regulation of viral infection, (ii) miRNA regulation of host immune response to viral pathogens, (iii) miRNA-based diagnostics and therapeutics targeting viral pathogens and challenges, and (iv) miRNA patents and the market landscape. Our findings show the differential expression of miRNA may serve as a prognostic biomarker for viral infections in regard to predicting the severity or adverse health effects associated with viral diseases. While there is huge market potential for miRNA technology, the novel approach of using miRNA mimics to enhance antiviral activity or antagonists to inhibit pro-viral miRNAs has been an ongoing research endeavor. Significant hurdles remain in terms of miRNA delivery, stability, efficacy, safety/tolerability, and specificity. Addressing these challenges may pave a path for harnessing the full potential of miRNAs in modern medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anais N. Bauer
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA; (A.N.B.); (N.M.); (F.W.)
| | - Niska Majumdar
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA; (A.N.B.); (N.M.); (F.W.)
| | - Frank Williams
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA; (A.N.B.); (N.M.); (F.W.)
| | - Smit Rajput
- Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA;
| | - Lok R. Pokhrel
- Department of Public Health, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA;
| | - Paul P. Cook
- Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA;
| | - Shaw M. Akula
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA; (A.N.B.); (N.M.); (F.W.)
- Department of Internal Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27834, USA;
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8
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Yang Y, Wang L, Peugnet-González I, Parada-Venegas D, Dijkstra G, Faber KN. cGAS-STING signaling pathway in intestinal homeostasis and diseases. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1239142. [PMID: 37781354 PMCID: PMC10538549 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1239142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The intestinal mucosa is constantly exposed to commensal microbes, opportunistic pathogens, toxins, luminal components and other environmental stimuli. The intestinal mucosa consists of multiple differentiated cellular and extracellular components that form a critical barrier, but is also equipped for efficient absorption of nutrients. Combination of genetic susceptibility and environmental factors are known as critical components involved in the pathogenesis of intestinal diseases. The innate immune system plays a critical role in the recognition and elimination of potential threats by detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). This host defense is facilitated by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), in which the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) pathway has gained attention due to its role in sensing host and foreign double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) as well as cyclic dinucleotides (CDNs) produced by bacteria. Upon binding with dsDNA, cGAS converts ATP and GTP to cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP), which binds to STING and activates TANK binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), inducing type I interferon (IFN) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)-mediated pro-inflammatory cytokines, which have diverse effects on innate and adaptive immune cells and intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). However, opposite perspectives exist regarding the role of the cGAS-STING pathway in different intestinal diseases. Activation of cGAS-STING signaling is associated with worse clinical outcomes in inflammation-associated diseases, while it also plays a critical role in protection against tumorigenesis and certain infections. Therefore, understanding the context-dependent mechanisms of the cGAS-STING pathway in the physiopathology of the intestinal mucosa is crucial for developing therapeutic strategies targeting the cGAS-STING pathway. This review aims to provide insight into recent findings of the protective and detrimental roles of the cGAS-STING pathway in intestinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Ivonne Peugnet-González
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Daniela Parada-Venegas
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Gerard Dijkstra
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Klaas Nico Faber
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Pennisi R, Maria Teresa S. HSV-1 Triggers an Antiviral Transcriptional Response during Viral Replication That Is Completely Abrogated in PKR -/- Cells. Pathogens 2023; 12:1126. [PMID: 37764935 PMCID: PMC10536113 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The activation of the innate immune response during HSV-1 infection stimulates several transcription factors, such as NF-κB and IRF3, which are critical regulators of IFN-β expression. The released IFN-β activates the ISGs, which encode antiviral effectors such as the PKR. We found that HSV-1 triggers an antiviral transcriptional response during viral replication by activating TBK1-IRF3-NF-κB network kinetically. In contrast, we reported that infected PKR-/- cells fail to activate the transcription of TBK1. Downstream, TBK1 was unable to activate the transcription of IRF3 and NF-κB. These data suggested that in PKR-/- cells, HSV-1 replication counteracts TBK1-IRF3-NF-κB network. In this scenario, a combined approach of gene knockout and gene silencing was used to determine how the lack of PKR facilitates HSV-1 replication. We reported that in HEp-2-infected cells, PKR can influence the TBK1-IRF3-NF-κB network, consequently interfering with viral replication. Otherwise, an abrogated PKR-mediated signaling sustains the HSV-1 replication. Our result allows us to add additional information on the complex HSV-host interaction network by reinforcing the concept of the PKR role in the innate response-related networks during HSV replication in an in vitro model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosamaria Pennisi
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Sciortino Maria Teresa
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Ferdinando Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy
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10
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Pietilä MK, Bachmann JJ, Ravantti J, Pelkmans L, Fraefel C. Cellular state landscape and herpes simplex virus type 1 infection progression are connected. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4515. [PMID: 37500668 PMCID: PMC10374626 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40148-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Prediction, prevention and treatment of virus infections require understanding of cell-to-cell variability that leads to heterogenous disease outcomes, but the source of this heterogeneity has yet to be clarified. To study the multimodal response of single human cells to herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection, we mapped high-dimensional viral and cellular state spaces throughout the infection using multiplexed imaging and quantitative single-cell measurements of viral and cellular mRNAs and proteins. Here we show that the high-dimensional cellular state scape can predict heterogenous infections, and cells move through the cellular state landscape according to infection progression. Spatial information reveals that infection changes the cellular state of both infected cells and of their neighbors. The multiplexed imaging of HSV-1-induced cellular modifications links infection progression to changes in signaling responses, transcriptional activity, and processing bodies. Our data show that multiplexed quantification of responses at the single-cell level, across thousands of cells helps predict infections and identify new targets for antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maija K Pietilä
- Institute of Virology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Jana J Bachmann
- Institute of Virology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Janne Ravantti
- Molecular and Integrative Biosciences Research Programme, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lucas Pelkmans
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Cornel Fraefel
- Institute of Virology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Duan Y, Sun L, Li Q. Herpes Simplex Virus 1 MicroRNAs: An Update. Intervirology 2023; 66:97-110. [PMID: 37285807 PMCID: PMC10389796 DOI: 10.1159/000531348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), an important human pathogen, is capable of latent infection in neurons and productive (lytic) infection in other tissue cells. Once infected with HSV-1, the immune system of the organism cannot eliminate the virus and carries it lifelong. HSV-1 possesses approximately 150 kb of double-stranded linear genomic DNA and can encode at least 70 proteins and 37 mature microRNAs (miRNAs) derived from 18 precursor miRNAs (pre-miRNAs). SUMMARY These HSV-1-encoded miRNAs are widely involved in multiple processes in the life cycle of the virus and the host cell, including viral latent and lytic infection, as well as host cell immune signaling, proliferation, and apoptosis. KEY MESSAGE In this review, we focused primarily on recent advances in HSV-1-encoded miRNA expression, function, and mechanism, which may provide new research ideas and feasible research methods systemically and comprehensively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongzhong Duan
- Academy of Biomedical Engineering, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China,
| | - Le Sun
- Basic Medical College, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Qihan Li
- Department of Viral Immunology, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, China
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12
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Weiß E, Hennig T, Graßl P, Djakovic L, Whisnant AW, Jürges CS, Koller F, Kluge M, Erhard F, Dölken L, Friedel CC. HSV-1 Infection Induces a Downstream Shift of Promoter-Proximal Pausing for Host Genes. J Virol 2023; 97:e0038123. [PMID: 37093003 PMCID: PMC10231138 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00381-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection exerts a profound shutoff of host gene expression at multiple levels. Recently, HSV-1 infection was reported to also impact promoter-proximal RNA polymerase II (Pol II) pausing, a key step in the eukaryotic transcription cycle, with decreased and increased Pol II pausing observed for activated and repressed genes, respectively. Here, we demonstrate that HSV-1 infection induces more complex alterations in promoter-proximal pausing than previously suspected for the vast majority of cellular genes. While pausing is generally retained, it is shifted to more downstream and less well-positioned sites for most host genes. The downstream shift of Pol II pausing was established between 1.5 and 3 h of infection, remained stable until at least 6 hours postinfection, and was observed in the absence of ICP22. The shift in Pol II pausing does not result from alternative de novo transcription initiation at downstream sites or read-in transcription originating from disruption of transcription termination of upstream genes. The use of downstream secondary pause sites associated with +1 nucleosomes was previously observed upon negative elongation factor (NELF) depletion. However, downstream shifts of Pol II pausing in HSV-1 infection were much more pronounced than observed upon NELF depletion. Thus, our study reveals a novel aspect in which HSV-1 infection fundamentally reshapes host transcriptional processes, providing new insights into the regulation of promoter-proximal Pol II pausing in eukaryotic cells. IMPORTANCE This study provides a genome-wide analysis of changes in promoter-proximal polymerase II (Pol II) pausing on host genes induced by HSV-1 infection. It shows that standard measures of pausing, i.e., pausing indices, do not properly capture the complex and unsuspected alterations in Pol II pausing occurring in HSV-1 infection. Instead of a reduction of pausing with increased elongation, as suggested by pausing index analysis, HSV-1 infection leads to a shift of pausing to downstream and less well-positioned sites than in uninfected cells for the majority of host genes. Thus, HSV-1 infection fundamentally reshapes a key regulatory step at the beginning of the host transcriptional cycle on a genome-wide scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Weiß
- Institute of Informatics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Hennig
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, Julius-Maximilians-University Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Pilar Graßl
- Institute of Informatics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Lara Djakovic
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, Julius-Maximilians-University Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Adam W. Whisnant
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, Julius-Maximilians-University Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christopher S. Jürges
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, Julius-Maximilians-University Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Franziska Koller
- Institute of Informatics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Michael Kluge
- Institute of Informatics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Erhard
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, Julius-Maximilians-University Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lars Dölken
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, Julius-Maximilians-University Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (HIRI), Helmholtz-Center for Infection Research (HZI), Würzburg, Germany
| | - Caroline C. Friedel
- Institute of Informatics, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
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Role of Innate Interferon Responses at the Ocular Surface in Herpes Simplex Virus-1-Induced Herpetic Stromal Keratitis. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12030437. [PMID: 36986359 PMCID: PMC10058014 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12030437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a highly successful pathogen that primarily infects epithelial cells of the orofacial mucosa. After initial lytic replication, HSV-1 enters sensory neurons and undergoes lifelong latency in the trigeminal ganglion (TG). Reactivation from latency occurs throughout the host’s life and is more common in people with a compromised immune system. HSV-1 causes various diseases depending on the site of lytic HSV-1 replication. These include herpes labialis, herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK), meningitis, and herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE). HSK is an immunopathological condition and is usually the consequence of HSV-1 reactivation, anterograde transport to the corneal surface, lytic replication in the epithelial cells, and activation of the host’s innate and adaptive immune responses in the cornea. HSV-1 is recognized by cell surface, endosomal, and cytoplasmic pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and activates innate immune responses that include interferons (IFNs), chemokine and cytokine production, as well as the recruitment of inflammatory cells to the site of replication. In the cornea, HSV-1 replication promotes type I (IFN-α/β) and type III (IFN-λ) IFN production. This review summarizes our current understanding of HSV-1 recognition by PRRs and innate IFN-mediated antiviral immunity during HSV-1 infection of the cornea. We also discuss the immunopathogenesis of HSK, current HSK therapeutics and challenges, proposed experimental approaches, and benefits of promoting local IFN-λ responses.
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Du Y, Hu Z, Luo Y, Wang HY, Yu X, Wang RF. Function and regulation of cGAS-STING signaling in infectious diseases. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1130423. [PMID: 36825026 PMCID: PMC9941744 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1130423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The efficacious detection of pathogens and prompt induction of innate immune signaling serve as a crucial component of immune defense against infectious pathogens. Over the past decade, DNA-sensing receptor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) and its downstream signaling adaptor stimulator of interferon genes (STING) have emerged as key mediators of type I interferon (IFN) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) responses in health and infection diseases. Moreover, both cGAS-STING pathway and pathogens have developed delicate strategies to resist each other for their survival. The mechanistic and functional comprehension of the interplay between cGAS-STING pathway and pathogens is opening the way for the development and application of pharmacological agonists and antagonists in the treatment of infectious diseases. Here, we briefly review the current knowledge of DNA sensing through the cGAS-STING pathway, and emphatically highlight the potent undertaking of cGAS-STING signaling pathway in the host against infectious pathogenic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Du
- Department of Medicine, and Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital (Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences), Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiqiang Hu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yien Luo
- Department of Neurology, Guangdong Neuroscience Institute, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital (Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences), Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Helen Y. Wang
- Department of Medicine, and Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Xiao Yu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Single Cell Technology and Application, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Rong-Fu Wang
- Department of Medicine, and Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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15
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Filiberti A, Gmyrek GB, Berube AN, Carr DJJ. Osteopontin contributes to virus resistance associated with type I IFN expression, activation of downstream ifn-inducible effector genes, and CCR2 +CD115 +CD206 + macrophage infiltration following ocular HSV-1 infection of mice. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1028341. [PMID: 36685562 PMCID: PMC9846535 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1028341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Ocular pathology is often associated with acute herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 infection of the cornea in mice. The present study was undertaken to determine the role of early T lymphocyte activation 1 protein or osteopontin (OPN) in corneal inflammation and host resistance to ocular HSV-1 infection. C57BL/6 wild type (WT) and osteopontin deficient (OPN KO) mice infected in the cornea with HSV-1 were evaluated for susceptibility to infection and cornea pathology. OPN KO mice were found to possess significantly more infectious virus in the cornea at day 3 and day 7 post infection compared to infected WT mice. Coupled with these findings, HSV-1-infected OPN KO mouse corneas were found to express less interferon (IFN)-α1, double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase, and RNase L compared to infected WT animals early post infection that likely contributed to decreased resistance. Notably, OPN KO mice displayed significantly less corneal opacity and neovascularization compared to WT mice that paralleled a decrease in expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) A within 12 hr post infection. The change in corneal pathology of the OPN KO mice aligned with a decrease in total leukocyte infiltration into the cornea and specifically, in neutrophils at day 3 post infection and in macrophage subpopulations including CCR2+CD115+CD206+ and CD115+CD183+CD206+ -expressing cells. The infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells into the cornea was unaltered comparing infected WT to OPN KO mice. Likewise, there was no difference in the total number of HSV-1-specific CD4+ or CD8+ T cells found in the draining lymph node with both sets functionally competent in response to virus antigen comparing WT to OPN KO mice. Collectively, these results demonstrate OPN deficiency directly influences the host innate immune response to ocular HSV-1 infection reducing some aspects of inflammation but at a cost with an increase in local HSV-1 replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Filiberti
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Grzegorz B. Gmyrek
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Amanda N. Berube
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Daniel J. J. Carr
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
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16
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Truong AD, Kang S, Dang HV, Hong Y, Vu TH, Heo J, Chu NT, Nguyen HT, Tran HTT, Hong YH. Small RNA sequencing and profiling of serum-derived exosomes from African swine fever virus-infected pigs. J Anim Sci 2022; 101:6881709. [PMID: 36478238 PMCID: PMC9940739 DOI: 10.1093/jas/skac400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) virus (ASFV) is responsible for one of the most severe swine diseases worldwide, with a morbidity rate of up to 100%; no vaccines or antiviral medicines are available against the virus. Exosomal miRNAs from individual cells can regulate the immune response to infectious diseases. In this study, pigs were infected with an ASFV Pig/HN/07 strain that was classified as acute form, and exosomal miRNA expression in the serum of infected pigs was analyzed using small RNA sequencing (small RNA-seq). Twenty-seven differentially expressed (DE) miRNAs were identified in the ASFV-infected pigs compared to that in the uninfected controls. Of these, 10 were upregulated and 17 were downregulated in the infected pigs. All DE miRNAs were analyzed using gene ontology (GO) terms and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database, and the DE miRNAs were found to be highly involved in T-cell receptor signaling, cGMP-PKG signaling, Toll-like receptor, MAPK signaling, and mTOR signaling pathways. Furthermore, the Cytoscape network analysis identified the network of interactions between DE miRNAs and target genes. Finally, the transcription levels of four miRNA genes (ssc-miR-24-3p, ssc-miR-130b-3p, ssc-let-7a, and ssc-let-7c) were examined using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and were found to be consistent with the small RNA-seq data. These DE miRNAs were associated with cellular genes involved in the pathways related to immune response, virus-host interactions, and several viral genes. Overall, our findings provide an important reference and improve our understanding of ASF pathogenesis and the immune or protective responses during an acute infection in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Yeojin Hong
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Thi Hao Vu
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Jubi Heo
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, Chung-Ang University, Anseong 17546, Republic of Korea
| | - Nhu Thi Chu
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam
| | - Huyen Thi Nguyen
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam
| | - Ha Thi Thanh Tran
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, National Institute of Veterinary Research, 86 Truong Chinh, Dong Da, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam
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Intracranial delivery of antisense locked nucleic acids for silencing microRNAs in the mouse brain. STAR Protoc 2022; 3:101836. [PMID: 36595897 PMCID: PMC9678759 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2022.101836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Antisense locked nucleic acid (LNA) technology has been widely used for silencing microRNAs with enhanced specificity and efficiency. In this protocol, we first describe the procedure for targeted intracranial delivery of LNAs to silence microRNAs specifically in the mouse brain. We then detail the steps to isolate RNA and protein from mouse brain, followed by using RT-PCR and Western blotting to confirm microRNA silencing. This noninvasive approach can only be applied to mouse brain to specifically target silencing of microRNAs. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Sharma et al. (2021).1.
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18
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The Virus-Induced Upregulation of the miR-183/96/182 Cluster and the FoxO Family Protein Members Are Not Required for Efficient Replication of HSV-1. Viruses 2022; 14:v14081661. [PMID: 36016282 PMCID: PMC9414244 DOI: 10.3390/v14081661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) expresses a large number of miRNAs, and their function is still not completely understood. In addition, HSV-1 has been found to deregulate host miRNAs, which adds to the complexity of the regulation of efficient virus replication. In this study, we comprehensively addressed the deregulation of host miRNAs by massive-parallel sequencing. We found that only miRNAs expressed from a single cluster, miR-183/96/182, are reproducibly deregulated during productive infection. These miRNAs are predicted to regulate a great number of potential targets involved in different cellular processes and have only 33 shared targets. Among these, members of the FoxO family of proteins were identified as potential targets for all three miRNAs. However, our study shows that the upregulated miRNAs do not affect the expression of FoxO proteins, moreover, these proteins were upregulated in HSV-1 infection. Furthermore, we show that the individual FoxO proteins are not required for efficient HSV-1 replication. Taken together, our results indicate a complex and redundant response of infected cells to the virus infection that is efficiently inhibited by the virus.
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Development of a Multi-Epitope Vaccine for Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and Evaluation of Its Immune Responses in Mice and Piglets. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147899. [PMID: 35887246 PMCID: PMC9318870 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (Mhp), the primary pathogen causing Mycoplasma pneumonia of swine (MPS), brings massive economic losses worldwide. Genomic variability and post-translational protein modification can enhance the immune evasion of Mhp, which makes MPS prone to recurrent outbreaks on farms, even with vaccination or other treatments. The reverse vaccinology pipeline has been developed as an attractive potential method for vaccine development due to its high efficiency and applicability. In this study, a multi-epitope vaccine for Mhp was developed, and its immune responses were evaluated in mice and piglets. Genomic core proteins of Mhp were retrieved through pan-genome analysis, and four immunodominant antigens were screened by host homologous protein removal, membrane protein screening, and virulence factor identification. One immunodominant antigen, AAV27984.1 (membrane nuclease), was expressed by E. coli and named rMhp597. For epitope prioritization, 35 B-cell-derived epitopes were identified from the four immunodominant antigens, and 10 MHC-I and 6 MHC-II binding epitopes were further identified. The MHC-I/II binding epitopes were merged and combined to produce recombinant proteins MhpMEV and MhpMEVC6His, which were used for animal immunization and structural analysis, respectively. Immunization of mice and piglets demonstrated that MhpMEV could induce humoral and cellular immune responses. The mouse serum antibodies could detect all 11 synthetic epitopes, and the piglet antiserum suppressed the nuclease activity of rMhp597. Moreover, piglet serum antibodies could also detect cultured Mhp strain 168. In summary, this study provides immunoassay results for a multi-epitope vaccine derived from the reverse vaccinology pipeline, and offers an alternative vaccine for MPS.
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