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Ståhlberg A, El-Heliebi A, Sedlmayr P, Kroneis T. Unravelling the biological secrets of microchimerism by single-cell analysis. Brief Funct Genomics 2018; 17:255-264. [PMID: 29028900 PMCID: PMC6063264 DOI: 10.1093/bfgp/elx027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of microchimeric cells is known for >100 years and well documented since decades. Earlier, microchimeric cells were mainly used for cell-based non-invasive prenatal diagnostics during early pregnancy. Microchimeric cells are also present beyond delivery and are associated to various autoimmune diseases, tissue repair, cancer and immune tolerance. All these findings were based on low complexity studies and occasionally accompanied by artefacts not allowing the biological functions of microchimerism to be determined. However, with the recent developments in single-cell analysis, new means to identify and characterize microchimeric cells are available. Cell labelling techniques in combination with single-cell analysis provide a new toolbox to decipher the biology of microchimeric cells at molecular and cellular level. In this review, we discuss how recent developments in single-cell analysis can be applied to determine the role and function of microchimeric cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Ståhlberg
- Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, Department of Pathology and Genetics, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Medicinaregatan 1F, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Amin El-Heliebi
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology & Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, Graz, Austria
| | - Peter Sedlmayr
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology & Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, Graz, Austria
| | - Thomas Kroneis
- Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, Department of Pathology and Genetics, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Medicinaregatan 1F, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology & Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, Graz, Austria
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2
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Chen S, El-Heliebi A, Schmid J, Kashofer K, Czyż ZT, Polzer BM, Pantel K, Kroneis T, Sedlmayr P. Target Cell Pre-enrichment and Whole Genome Amplification for Single Cell Downstream Characterization. J Vis Exp 2018:56394. [PMID: 29863657 PMCID: PMC6101176 DOI: 10.3791/56394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Rare target cells can be isolated from a high background of non-target cells using antibodies specific for surface proteins of target cells. A recently developed method uses a medical wire functionalized with anti-epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) antibodies for in vivo isolation of circulating tumor cells (CTCs)1. A patient-matched cohort in non-metastatic prostate cancer showed that the in vivo isolation technique resulted in a higher percentage of patients positive for CTCs as well as higher CTC counts as compared to the current gold standard in CTC enumeration. As cells cannot be recovered from current medical devices, a new functionalized wire (referred to as Device) was manufactured allowing capture and subsequent detachment of cells by enzymatic treatment. Cells are allowed to attach to the Device, visualized on a microscope and detached using enzymatic treatment. Recovered cells are cytocentrifuged onto membrane-coated slides and harvested individually by means of laser microdissection or micromanipulation. Single-cell samples are then subjected to single-cell whole genome amplification allowing multiple downstream analysis including screening and target-specific approaches. The procedure of isolation and recovery yields high quality DNA from single cells and does not impair subsequent whole genome amplification (WGA). A single cell's amplified DNA can be forwarded to screening and/or targeted analysis such as array comparative genome hybridization (array-CGH) or sequencing. The device allows ex vivo isolation from artificial rare cell samples (i.e. 500 target cells spiked into 5 mL of peripheral blood). Whereas detachment rates of cells are acceptable (50 - 90%), the recovery rate of detached cells onto slides spans a wide range dependent on the cell line used (<10 - >50%) and needs some further attention. This device is not cleared for the use in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shukun Chen
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz
| | - Amin El-Heliebi
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz
| | - Julia Schmid
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz
| | | | - Zbigniew T Czyż
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine ITEM
| | | | - Klaus Pantel
- Department of Tumor Biology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf
| | - Thomas Kroneis
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz; Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, University of Gothenburg;
| | - Peter Sedlmayr
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz
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3
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El-Heliebi A, Hille C, Laxman N, Svedlund J, Haudum C, Ercan E, Kroneis T, Chen S, Smolle M, Rossmann C, Krzywkowski T, Ahlford A, Darai E, von Amsberg G, Alsdorf W, König F, Löhr M, de Kruijff I, Riethdorf S, Gorges TM, Pantel K, Bauernhofer T, Nilsson M, Sedlmayr P. In Situ Detection and Quantification of AR-V7, AR-FL, PSA, and KRAS Point Mutations in Circulating Tumor Cells. Clin Chem 2018; 64:536-546. [DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2017.281295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Liquid biopsies can be used in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) to detect androgen receptor splice variant 7 (AR-V7), a splicing product of the androgen receptor. Patients with AR-V7-positive circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have greater benefit of taxane chemotherapy compared with novel hormonal therapies, indicating a treatment-selection biomarker. Likewise, in those with pancreatic cancer (PaCa), KRAS mutations act as prognostic biomarkers. Thus, there is an urgent need for technology investigating the expression and mutation status of CTCs. Here, we report an approach that adds AR-V7 or KRAS status to CTC enumeration, compatible with multiple CTC-isolation platforms.
METHODS
We studied 3 independent CTC-isolation devices (CellCollector, Parsortix, CellSearch) for the evaluation of AR-V7 or KRAS status of CTCs with in situ padlock probe technology. Padlock probes allow highly specific detection and visualization of transcripts on a cellular level. We applied padlock probes for detecting AR-V7, androgen receptor full length (AR-FL), and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in CRPC and KRAS wild-type (wt) and mutant (mut) transcripts in PaCa in CTCs from 46 patients.
RESULTS
In situ analysis showed that 71% (22 of 31) of CRPC patients had detectable AR-V7 expression ranging from low to high expression [1–76 rolling circle products (RCPs)/CTC]. In PaCa patients, 40% (6 of 15) had KRAS mut expressing CTCs with 1 to 8 RCPs/CTC. In situ padlock probe analysis revealed CTCs with no detectable cytokeratin expression but positivity for AR-V7 or KRAS mut transcripts.
CONCLUSIONS
Padlock probe technology enables quantification of AR-V7, AR-FL, PSA, and KRAS mut/wt transcripts in CTCs. The technology is easily applicable in routine laboratories and compatible with multiple CTC-isolation devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin El-Heliebi
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University Graz, Austria
| | - Claudia Hille
- Department of Tumor Biology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Navya Laxman
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, Stockholm University, Solna, Sweden
| | - Jessica Svedlund
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, Stockholm University, Solna, Sweden
| | - Christoph Haudum
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University Graz, Austria
- Center for Biomarker Research in Medicine (CBmed); Graz, Austria
| | - Erkan Ercan
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University Graz, Austria
| | - Thomas Kroneis
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University Graz, Austria
| | - Shukun Chen
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University Graz, Austria
| | - Maria Smolle
- Center for Biomarker Research in Medicine (CBmed); Graz, Austria
| | - Christopher Rossmann
- Division of Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Tomasz Krzywkowski
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, Stockholm University, Solna, Sweden
| | - Annika Ahlford
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, Stockholm University, Solna, Sweden
- Devyser AB, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Evangelia Darai
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, Stockholm University, Solna, Sweden
| | - Gunhild von Amsberg
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Winfried Alsdorf
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Matthias Löhr
- Center for Digestive Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital and Division of Surgery, CLINTEC, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Inge de Kruijff
- Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Department of Medical Oncology and Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sabine Riethdorf
- Department of Tumor Biology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tobias M Gorges
- Department of Tumor Biology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Klaus Pantel
- Department of Tumor Biology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Bauernhofer
- Center for Biomarker Research in Medicine (CBmed); Graz, Austria
- Division of Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Austria
| | - Mats Nilsson
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, Stockholm University, Solna, Sweden
| | - Peter Sedlmayr
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University Graz, Austria
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Kroneis T, Jonasson E, Andersson D, Dolatabadi S, Ståhlberg A. Global preamplification simplifies targeted mRNA quantification. Sci Rep 2017; 7:45219. [PMID: 28332609 PMCID: PMC5362892 DOI: 10.1038/srep45219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The need to perform gene expression profiling using next generation sequencing and quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) on small sample sizes and single cells is rapidly expanding. However, to analyse few molecules, preamplification is required. Here, we studied global and target-specific preamplification using 96 optimised qPCR assays. To evaluate the preamplification strategies, we monitored the reactions in real-time using SYBR Green I detection chemistry followed by melting curve analysis. Next, we compared yield and reproducibility of global preamplification to that of target-specific preamplification by qPCR using the same amount of total RNA. Global preamplification generated 9.3-fold lower yield and 1.6-fold lower reproducibility than target-specific preamplification. However, the performance of global preamplification is sufficient for most downstream applications and offers several advantages over target-specific preamplification. To demonstrate the potential of global preamplification we analysed the expression of 15 genes in 60 single cells. In conclusion, we show that global preamplification simplifies targeted gene expression profiling of small sample sizes by a flexible workflow. We outline the pros and cons for global preamplification compared to target-specific preamplification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kroneis
- Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, Department of Pathology and Genetics, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Medicinaregatan 1F, 413 90, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Emma Jonasson
- Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, Department of Pathology and Genetics, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Medicinaregatan 1F, 413 90, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Daniel Andersson
- Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, Department of Pathology and Genetics, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Medicinaregatan 1F, 413 90, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Soheila Dolatabadi
- Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, Department of Pathology and Genetics, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Medicinaregatan 1F, 413 90, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anders Ståhlberg
- Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, Department of Pathology and Genetics, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Medicinaregatan 1F, 413 90, Gothenburg, Sweden
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5
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Abstract
There is an increasing requirement for genetic analysis of individual cells from tissue sections. This is particularly the case for analysis of tumor cells but is also a requirement for analysis of cells in pancreas from individuals with type 1 diabetes where there is evidence of viral infection or in the analysis of chimerism in pancreas; either post-transplant or as a result of feto-maternal cell transfer.This protocol describes a strategy to isolate cells using laser microdissection and to run a 17plex PCR to discriminate between cells of haplo-identical origin (i.e., fetal and maternal cells) in pancreas tissue but other robust DNA tests could be used. In short, snap-frozen tissues are cryo-sectioned and mounted onto membrane-coated slides. Target cells are harvested from the tissue sections by laser microdissection and pressure catapulting (LMPC) prior to DNA profiling. This is based on amplification of highly repetitive yet stably inherited loci (short tandem repeats, STR) as well as the amelogenin locus for sex determination and separation of PCR products by capillary electrophoresis.
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6
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Eikmans M, van Halteren AGS, van Besien K, van Rood JJ, Drabbels JJM, Claas FHJ. Naturally acquired microchimerism: implications for transplantation outcome and novel methodologies for detection. CHIMERISM 2015; 5:24-39. [PMID: 24762743 DOI: 10.4161/chim.28908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Microchimerism represents a condition where one individual harbors genetically distinct cell populations, and the chimeric population constitutes <1% of the total number of cells. The most common natural source of microchimerism is pregnancy. The reciprocal cell exchange between a mother and her child often leads to the stable engraftment of hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic stem cells in both parties. Interaction between cells from the mother and those from the child may result in maternal immune cells becoming sensitized to inherited paternal alloantigens of the child, which are not expressed by the mother herself. Vice versa, immune cells of the child may become sensitized toward the non-inherited maternal alloantigens of the mother. The extent of microchimerism, its anatomical location, and the sensitivity of the techniques used for detecting its presence collectively determine whether microchimerism can be detected in an individual. In this review, we focus on the clinical consequences of microchimerism in solid organ and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, and propose concepts derived from data of epidemiologic studies. Next, we elaborate on the latest molecular methodology, including digital PCR, for determining in a reliable and sensitive way the extent of microchimerism. For the first time, tools have become available to isolate viable chimeric cells from a host background, so that the challenges of establishing the biologic mechanisms and function of these cells may finally be tackled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Eikmans
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion; Leiden University Medical Center; Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Astrid G S van Halteren
- Immunology Laboratory; Willem Alexander Children's Hospital; Leiden University Medical Center; Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | - Jon J van Rood
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion; Leiden University Medical Center; Leiden, the Netherlands; Europdonor Foundation; Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Jos J M Drabbels
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion; Leiden University Medical Center; Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Frans H J Claas
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion; Leiden University Medical Center; Leiden, the Netherlands
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7
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Abstract
The increasing interest towards cellular heterogeneity within cell populations has pushed the development of new protocols to isolate and analyze single cells. PCR-based amplification techniques are widely used in this field. However, setting up an experiment and analyzing the results can sometimes be challenging. The aim of this chapter is to provide a general overview on single-cell PCR analysis focusing on the potential pitfalls and on the possible solutions to successfully perform the analysis.
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8
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Abstract
Whole genome amplification (WGA) is a widely used molecular technique that is becoming increasingly necessary in genetic research on a range of sample types including individual cells, fossilized remains and entire ecosystems. Multiple methods of WGA have been developed, each with specific strengths and weaknesses, but with a common defect in that each method distorts the initial template DNA during the course of amplification. The type, extent, and circumstance of the bias vary with the WGA method and particulars of the template DNA. In this review, we endeavor to discuss the types of bias introduced, the susceptibility of common WGA techniques to these bias types, and the interdependence between bias and characteristics of the template DNA. Finally, we attempt to illustrate some of the criteria specific to the analytical platform and research application that should be considered to enable combination of the appropriate WGA method, template DNA, sequencing platform, and intended use for optimal results.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John H Leamon
- CyVek Inc., 2 Barnes Industrial Road South, Wallingford, CT, 06492, USA.
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9
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Kroneis T, El-Heliebi A. Whole Genome Amplification by Isothermal Multiple Strand Displacement Using Phi29 DNA Polymerase. Methods Mol Biol 2015; 1347:111-117. [PMID: 26374313 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2990-0_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The here described method of isothermal whole genome amplification (iWGA) uses a Phi29 DNA polymerase-based kit (Illustra GenomiPhi V2 DNA Amplification Kit) that amplifies minute quantities of DNA by multiple strand displacement upon random hexamer primer binding. Starting from genomic DNA or single cells this amplification yields up to 5 μg of iWGA product with fragment lengths of 10 kb and longer. As this amplification lacks the need of fragmenting DNA, its products are well suited for many downstream applications (e.g. sequencing and DNA profiling). On the contrary, degraded DNA samples are not supported by the nature of the amplification and are not well suited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kroneis
- Research Unit for Single Cell Analysis, Institute of Cell Biology, Histology & Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, Graz, 8010, Austria.
- Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Amin El-Heliebi
- Research Unit for Single Cell Analysis, Institute of Cell Biology, Histology & Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, Graz, 8010, Austria
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10
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Kroneis T, Chen S, El-Heliebi A. Low-Volume On-Chip Single-Cell Whole Genome Amplification for Multiple Subsequent Analyses. Methods Mol Biol 2015; 1347:245-61. [PMID: 26374322 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2990-0_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Multiple analyses such as DNA profiling, sequencing, or comparative genome hybridization (CGH) done on the single-cell level long for pre-amplification due to the diploid human genome. Isothermal whole genome amplification allows amplification of long DNA templates from single cells. When analysis needs to be performed under rare cell conditions additional care needs to be taken due to the fact that, even after pre-enrichment, few candidate target cells are still dispersed among an overwhelming number of non-target background cells. Here, we describe a protocol where we define a population of candidate target cells based on specific staining. Candidate cells are then isolated by laser microdissection and pressure catapulting (LMPC) and transferred onto a microliter reaction slide. This slide allows monitoring the single-cell isolation process and isothermal whole genome amplification in less than 2 μL. The amplification products obtained from single cells can be forwarded to multiple analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kroneis
- Research Unit for Single Cell Analysis, Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, Graz, 8010, Austria. .,Sahlgrenska Cancer Center, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Shukun Chen
- Research Unit for Single Cell Analysis, Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, Graz, 8010, Austria
| | - Amin El-Heliebi
- Research Unit for Single Cell Analysis, Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Harrachgasse 21, Graz, 8010, Austria
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11
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Abstract
Modern molecular biology relies on large amounts of high-quality genomic DNA. However, in a number of clinical or biological applications this requirement cannot be met, as starting material is either limited (e.g., preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) or analysis of minimal residual cancer) or of insufficient quality (e.g., formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples or forensics). As a consequence, in order to obtain sufficient amounts of material to analyze these demanding samples by state-of-the-art modern molecular assays, genomic DNA has to be amplified. This chapter summarizes available technologies for whole-genome amplification (WGA), bridging the last 25 years from the first developments to currently applied methods. We will especially elaborate on research application, as well as inherent advantages and limitations of various WGA technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zbigniew Tadeusz Czyz
- Project Group, Personalized Tumor Therapy, Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine (ITEM), Josef-Engert-Straße 9, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Kirsch
- Project Group, Personalized Tumor Therapy, Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine (ITEM), Josef-Engert-Straße 9, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Bernhard Polzer
- Project Group, Personalized Tumor Therapy, Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine (ITEM), Josef-Engert-Straße 9, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
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12
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Pestrin M, Salvianti F, Galardi F, De Luca F, Turner N, Malorni L, Pazzagli M, Di Leo A, Pinzani P. Heterogeneity of PIK3CA mutational status at the single cell level in circulating tumor cells from metastatic breast cancer patients. Mol Oncol 2014; 9:749-57. [PMID: 25539732 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Revised: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs) represent a "liquid biopsy of the tumor" which might allow real-time monitoring of cancer biology and therapies in individual patients. CTCs are extremely rare in the blood stream and their analysis is technically challenging. The CellSearch(®) system provides the enumeration of CTCs with prognostic significance in patients with metastatic breast cancer (mBC), but it does not allow their molecular characterization, which might be useful to identify therapeutically relevant targets for individualized treatment. Combining the CellSearch(®) and DEPArray™ technologies allows the recovery of single CTCs as a pure sample for molecular analysis. The purpose of the study was to investigate the heterogeneity of PIK3CA mutational status within single CTCs isolated from individual mBC patients. CTCs were enriched and enumerated by CellSearch(®) in blood samples collected from 39 mBC patients. In 20 out of 39 patients enriched samples with ≥5 CTCs were sorted using DEParray™ to isolate single CTCs or pools of CTCs to be submitted to Whole Genome Amplification (WGA) before sequencing analysis. In 18 out of 20 patients, it was possible to perform PIK3CA sequencing on exons 9 and 20. Twelve subjects were wild type (wt) for the PIK3CA gene. PIK3CA status could also be assessed in pools of CTCs in seven of these patients, with consistent wt status found. Six patients (33%) had a PIK3CA mutation identified. In 2 of the six patients, molecular heterogeneity was detected when mutational analysis was performed on more than one single CTC, including one patient with loss of heterozygosity on both single and pooled CTCs, and one patient with three different PIK3CA variants on single CTCs but PIK3CA wt status on pooled CTC samples. In six out of the 18 cases PIK3CA status was also evaluable on a primary tumor sample. In one of the six cases a discordance in PIK3CA status between the primary (wild-type) and the matched CTC (exon 20 mutation) was observed. This study demonstrates the feasibility of a non-invasive approach based on the liquid biopsy in mBC patients. Moreover, our data suggest the importance of characterizing CTCs at the single cell level in order to investigate the molecular heterogeneity within cells from the same patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Pestrin
- Sandro Pitigliani Medical Oncology Department, Hospital of Prato, Istituto Toscano Tumori, Prato, Italy
| | - Francesca Salvianti
- Department of Clinical, Experimental and Biomedical Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Francesca Galardi
- Sandro Pitigliani Medical Oncology Department, Hospital of Prato, Istituto Toscano Tumori, Prato, Italy
| | - Francesca De Luca
- Sandro Pitigliani Medical Oncology Department, Hospital of Prato, Istituto Toscano Tumori, Prato, Italy
| | - Natalie Turner
- Sandro Pitigliani Medical Oncology Department, Hospital of Prato, Istituto Toscano Tumori, Prato, Italy
| | - Luca Malorni
- Sandro Pitigliani Medical Oncology Department, Hospital of Prato, Istituto Toscano Tumori, Prato, Italy
| | - Mario Pazzagli
- Department of Clinical, Experimental and Biomedical Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Angelo Di Leo
- Sandro Pitigliani Medical Oncology Department, Hospital of Prato, Istituto Toscano Tumori, Prato, Italy
| | - Pamela Pinzani
- Department of Clinical, Experimental and Biomedical Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy.
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13
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Sedlmayr P, Kroneis T. Verification of the genomic identity of candidate microchimeric cells. CHIMERISM 2014. [DOI: 10.4161/chim.17741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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14
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Genomics in premature infants: a non-invasive strategy to obtain high-quality DNA. Sci Rep 2014; 4:4286. [PMID: 24598548 PMCID: PMC3944721 DOI: 10.1038/srep04286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We used a cost-effective, non-invasive method to obtain high-quality DNA from buccal epithelial-cells (BEC) of premature infants for genomic analysis. DNAs from BEC were obtained from premature infants with gestational age ≤ 36 weeks. Short terminal repeats (STRs) were performed simultaneously on DNA obtained from the buccal swabs and blood from the same patient. The STR profiles demonstrated that the samples originated from the same individual and exclude any contamination by external DNAs. Whole exome sequencing was performed on DNAs obtained from BEC on premature infants with and without necrotizing enterocolitis, and successfully provided a total number of reads and variants corroborating with those obtained from healthy blood donors. We provide a proof of concept that BEC is a reliable and preferable source of DNA for high-throughput sequencing in premature infants.
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15
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El-Heliebi A, Kroneis T, Wagner K, Meditz K, Kolb D, Feichtinger J, Thallinger GG, Quehenberger F, Liegl-Atzwanger B, Rinner B. Resolving tumor heterogeneity: genes involved in chordoma cell development identified by low-template analysis of morphologically distinct cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e87663. [PMID: 24503940 PMCID: PMC3913634 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 12/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The classical sacrococcygeal chordoma tumor presents with a typical morphology of lobulated myxoid tumor tissue with cords, strands and nests of tumor cells. The population of cells consists of small non-vacuolated cells, intermediate cells with a wide range of vacuolization and large heavily vacuolated (physaliferous) cells. To date analysis was only performed on bulk tumor mass because of its rare incidence, lack of suited model systems and technical limitations thereby neglecting its heterogeneous composition. We intended to clarify whether the observed cell types are derived from genetically distinct clones or represent different phenotypes. Furthermore, we aimed at elucidating the differences between small non-vacuolated and large physaliferous cells on the genomic and transcriptomic level. Phenotype-specific analyses of small non-vacuolated and large physaliferous cells in two independent chordoma cell lines yielded four candidate genes involved in chordoma cell development. UCHL3, coding for an ubiquitin hydrolase, was found to be over-expressed in the large physaliferous cell phenotype of MUG-Chor1 (18.7-fold) and U-CH1 (3.7-fold) cells. The mannosyltransferase ALG11 (695-fold) and the phosphatase subunit PPP2CB (18.6-fold) were found to be up-regulated in large physaliferous MUG-Chor1 cells showing a similar trend in U-CH1 cells. TMEM144, an orphan 10-transmembrane family receptor, yielded contradictory data as cDNA microarray analysis showed up- but RT-qPCR data down-regulation in large physaliferous MUG-Chor1 cells. Isolation of few but morphologically identical cells allowed us to overcome the limitations of bulk analysis in chordoma research. We identified the different chordoma cell phenotypes to be part of a developmental process and discovered new genes linked to chordoma cell development representing potential targets for further research in chordoma tumor biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amin El-Heliebi
- Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Thomas Kroneis
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology & Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- * E-mail: .
| | - Karin Wagner
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Katharina Meditz
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Dagmar Kolb
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology & Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Julia Feichtinger
- Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
- Core Facility Bioinformatics, Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Graz, Austria
| | - Gerhard G. Thallinger
- Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
- Core Facility Bioinformatics, Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Graz, Austria
| | - Franz Quehenberger
- Institute for Medical Informatics, Statistics and Documentation, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Beate Rinner
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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16
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Swennenhuis JF, Reumers J, Thys K, Aerssens J, Terstappen LW. Efficiency of whole genome amplification of single circulating tumor cells enriched by CellSearch and sorted by FACS. Genome Med 2013; 5:106. [PMID: 24286536 PMCID: PMC3978840 DOI: 10.1186/gm510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 11/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumor cells in the blood of patients with metastatic carcinomas are associated with poor survival. Knowledge of the cells' genetic make-up can help to guide targeted therapy. We evaluated the efficiency and quality of isolation and amplification of DNA from single circulating tumor cells (CTC). METHODS The efficiency of the procedure was determined by spiking blood with SKBR-3 cells, enrichment with the CellSearch system, followed by single cell sorting by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and whole genome amplification. A selection of single cell DNA from fixed and unfixed SKBR-3 cells was exome sequenced and the DNA quality analyzed. Single CTC from patients with lung cancer were used to demonstrate the potential of single CTC molecular characterization. RESULTS The overall efficiency of the procedure from spiked cell to amplified DNA was approximately 20%. Losses attributed to the CellSearch system were around 20%, transfer to FACS around 25%, sorting around 5% and DNA amplification around 25%. Exome sequencing revealed that the quality of the DNA was affected by the fixation of the cells, amplification, and the low starting quantity of DNA. A single fixed cell had an average coverage at 20× depth of 30% when sequencing to an average of 40× depth, whereas a single unfixed cell had 45% coverage. GenomiPhi-amplified genomic DNA had a coverage of 72% versus a coverage of 87% of genomic DNA. Twenty-one percent of the CTC from patients with lung cancer identified by the CellSearch system could be isolated individually and amplified. CONCLUSIONS CTC enriched by the CellSearch system were sorted by FACS, and DNA retrieved and amplified with an overall efficiency of 20%. Analysis of the sequencing data showed that this DNA could be used for variant calling, but not for quantitative measurements such as copy number detection. Close to 55% of the exome of single SKBR-3 cells were successfully sequenced to 20× depth making it possible to call 72% of the variants. The overall coverage was reduced to 30% at 20× depth, making it possible to call 56% of the variants in CellSave-fixed cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joost F Swennenhuis
- Department of Medical Cell BioPhysics, MIRA Institute, University of Twente, Carre Room C4437, Hallenweg 23, 7522 NH Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Joke Reumers
- Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Kim Thys
- Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Aerssens
- Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Leon Wmm Terstappen
- Department of Medical Cell BioPhysics, MIRA Institute, University of Twente, Carre Room C4437, Hallenweg 23, 7522 NH Enschede, The Netherlands
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van Halteren AGS, Sedlmayr P, Kroneis T, Burlingham WJ, Nelson JL. Meeting report of the First Symposium on Chimerism. CHIMERISM 2013; 4:132-5. [PMID: 24247201 DOI: 10.4161/chim.27168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Astrid G S van Halteren
- Department of Pediatrics; Willem Alexander Children's Hospital; Leiden University Medical Center; Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Peter Sedlmayr
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology; University of Graz; Graz, Austria
| | - Thomas Kroneis
- Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology; University of Graz; Graz, Austria
| | - William J Burlingham
- Department of Surgery; Division of Transplantation; University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health; Madison, WI USA
| | - J Lee Nelson
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center; University of Washington; Seattle, WA USA
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Mannello F, Ligi D, Magnani M. Deciphering the single-cell omic: innovative application for translational medicine. Expert Rev Proteomics 2013; 9:635-48. [PMID: 23256674 DOI: 10.1586/epr.12.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Traditional technologies to investigate system biology are limited by the detection of parameters resulting from the averages of large populations of cells, missing cells produced in small numbers, and attempting to uniform the heterogeneity. The advent of proteomics and genomics at a single-cell level has set the basis for an outstanding improvement in analytical technology and data acquisition. It has been well demonstrated that cellular heterogeneity is closely related to numerous stochastic transcriptional events leading to variations in patterns of expression among single genetically identical cells. The new-generation technology of single-cell analysis is able to better characterize a cell's population, identifying and differentiating outlier cells, in order to provide both a single-cell experiment and a corresponding bulk measurement, through the identification, quantification and characterization of all system biology aspects (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, degradomics and fluxomics). The movement of omics into single-cell analysis represents a significant and outstanding shift.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferdinando Mannello
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Section of Clinical Biochemistry, Unit of Cell Biology, University Carlo Bo, Via O Ubaldini 7, 61029 Urbino (PU), Italy.
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Semiautomated isolation and molecular characterisation of single or highly purified tumour cells from CellSearch enriched blood samples using dielectrophoretic cell sorting. Br J Cancer 2013; 108:1358-67. [PMID: 23470469 PMCID: PMC3619252 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2013.92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Molecular characterisation of single circulating tumour cells (CTCs) holds considerable promise for predictive biomarker assessment and to explore CTC heterogeneity. We evaluate a new method, the DEPArray system, that allows the dielectrophoretic manipulation and isolation of single and 100% purified groups of CTCs from pre-enriched blood samples and explore the feasibility of their molecular characterisation. METHODS Samples containing known numbers of two cell populations were used to assess cell loss during sample loading. Cultured breast cancer cells were isolated from spiked blood samples using CellSearch CTC and Profile kits. Single tumour cells and groups of up to 10 tumour cells were recovered with the DEPArray system and subjected to transcriptional and mutation analysis. RESULTS On average, 40% cell loss was observed when loading samples to the DEPArray system. Expected mutations in clinically relevant markers could be obtained for 60% of single recovered tumour cells and all groups of tumour cells. Reliable gene expression profiles were obtained from single cells and groups of up to 10 cells for 2 out of 3 spiked breast cancer cell lines. CONCLUSION We describe a semiautomated workflow for the isolation of small groups of 1 to 10 tumour cells from whole blood samples and provide proof of principle for the feasibility of their comprehensive molecular characterisation.
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Song Q, Yang H, Zou B, Kajiyama T, Kambara H, Zhou G. Improvement of LATE-PCR to allow single-cell analysis by pyrosequencing. Analyst 2013; 138:4991-7. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an00821e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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21
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Malecki M, Tombokan X, Anderson M, Malecki R, Beauchaine M. TRA-1-60 +, SSEA-4 +, POU5F1 +, SOX2 +, NANOG + Clones of Pluripotent Stem Cells in the Embryonal Carcinomas of the Testes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 3. [PMID: 23772337 DOI: 10.4172/2157-7633.1000134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cancer of the testes is currently the most frequent neoplasm and a leading cause of morbidity in men 15-35 years of age. Its incidence is increasing. Embryonal carcinoma is its most malignant form, which either may be resistant or may develop resistance to therapies, which results in relapses. Cancer stem cells are hypothesized to be drivers of these phenomena. SPECIFIC AIM The specific aim of this work was identification and isolation of spectra of single, living cancer stem cells, which were acquired directly from the patients' biopsies, followed by testing of their pluripotency. PATIENTS METHODS Biopsies were obtained from the patients with the clinical and histological diagnoses of the primary, pure embryonal carcinomas of the testes. The magnetic and fluorescent antibodies were genetically engineered. The SSEA-4 and TRA-1-60 cell surface display was analyzed by multiphoton fluorescence spectroscopy (MPFS), flow cytometry (FCM), immunoblotting (IB), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMRS), energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDXS), and total reflection x-ray spectroscopy (TRXFS). The single, living cells were isolated by magnetic or fluorescent sorting followed by their clonal expansion. The OCT4A, SOX2, and NANOG genes' transcripts were analyzed by qRTPCR and the products by IB and MPFS. RESULTS The clones of cells, with the strong surface display of TRA-1-60 and SSEA-4, were identified and isolated directly from the biopsies acquired from the patients diagnosed with the pure embryonal carcinomas of the testes. These cells demonstrated high levels of transcription and translation of the pluripotency genes: OCT4A, SOX2, and NANOG. They formed embryoid bodies, which differentiated into ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. CONCLUSION In the pure embryonal carcinomas of the testes, acquired directly from the patients, we identified, isolated with high viability and selectivity, and profiled the clones of the pluripotent stem cells. These results may help in explaining therapy-resistance and relapses of these neoplasms, as well as, in designing targeted, personalized therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Malecki
- Phoenix Biomolecular Engineering Foundation, San Francisco, CA, USA ; University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
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22
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SenGupta SB, Delhanty JDA. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis: recent triumphs and remaining challenges. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2012; 12:585-92. [PMID: 22845479 DOI: 10.1586/erm.12.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Over the last 20 years, preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) has changed from being an experimental procedure to one that is carried out in specialized diagnostic centers worldwide. Genetic awareness and the rapid identification of germline mutations or chromosomal abnormalities enable individuals to know their risk of transmitting a genetic disease before they have children. This has created a demand for PGD from couples who wish to avoid terminations of affected pregnancies. Although PGD is expensive because it requires couples to go through IVF, there is a trend for diagnosis to move towards automation, which will reduce cost and the need for specialized expertise. This will allow diagnosis to be carried out in routine molecular diagnostic laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sioban B SenGupta
- University College London Centre for Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis, Institute for Women's Health, University College London, 86-96 Chenies Mews, London, WC1E 6HX, UK.
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Lee JCI, Tsai LC, Lai PY, Lee CC, Lin CY, Huang TY, Linacre A, Hsieh HM. Evaluating the performance of whole genome amplification for use in low template DNA typing. MEDICINE, SCIENCE, AND THE LAW 2012; 52:223-228. [PMID: 22875794 DOI: 10.1258/msl.2012.011126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We report on the performance of two whole genome amplification methods, GenomiPhi™ amplification and modified-improved primer extension preamplification (mIPEP), when analysing low template DNA samples. Template as low as 10 pg treated with mIPEP generated more than 1 ng of DNA that could be used in STR typing. Initial templates of 100-10 pg, when treated with mIPEP, generated an increase in alleles compared with control samples. Partial profiles using the AmpFℓSTR(®) Identifiler™ Kit were produced from this suboptimal DNA template, with 70% of the possible alleles (21.7 ± 2.1 in 32 alleles) recorded, using the mIPEP amplified products with an initial template of 100 pg. Allelic imbalance decreased with samples treated with whole genome amplification method (WGA) compared with those without this initial treatment. Further methods for improvement were also analysed including altering the condition of electrokinetic injection, and the successful DNA typing rate was increased to about 80%. This report illustrates the potential use and limitations of WGA for low template samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Chun-I Lee
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Ministry of Justice, New Taipei City, Taiwan
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Emerging technologies for improved stratification of cancer patients: a review of opportunities, challenges, and tools. Cancer J 2012; 17:451-64. [PMID: 22157289 DOI: 10.1097/ppo.0b013e31823bd1f8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is a heterogeneous collection of diseases with wild variation in etiology, pathogenesis, response to therapy, and prognosis. Sources of variation are frequently obscure. Current practice attempts to classify tumors by tissue of origin and extent of disease through staging such that more risky tumors can be managed with more aggressive treatments. Modest inroads have been made with biomarkers to further characterize groups of tumors with important characteristics such as response to selected drugs. However, biomarker-driven decisions are relatively few when examining the maze of clinical decisions in the care of cancer patients. Against this backdrop, waves of researchers have unleashed a vast array of new technologies, with the goal of better characterization of the inherent diversity of tumors. This review outlines the use of cancer biomarkers and emerging technologies to stratify patients with a focus on the challenges and opportunities of next-generation nucleic acid sequencing approaches in oncology.
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DNA typing in single cell analysis: Single sperm cells outperform whole genome pre-amplified samples. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL GENETICS SUPPLEMENT SERIES 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fsigss.2011.09.094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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Vandewoestyne M, Deforce D. Laser capture microdissection for forensic DNA analysis. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL GENETICS SUPPLEMENT SERIES 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fsigss.2011.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Sedlmayr P, Kroneis T. Verification of the genomic identity of candidate microchimeric cells. CHIMERISM 2011; 2:63-4. [PMID: 22163062 DOI: 10.4161/chim.2.3.17741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2011] [Revised: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 08/12/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Microchimerism has been studied in the context of a variety of diseases which include autoimmune diseases (such as systemic sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus and autoimmune thyroid diseases), cancer (e.g., of the cervix, thyroid gland, lung, breast), tissue repair, transplantation and transfusion. It may become relevant in the context of cell-based non-invasive prenatal diagnosis. But how to safely identify individual microchimeric cells? This is a nontrivial question, for which a solution has recently been suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Sedlmayr
- Center for Molecular Medicine; Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology; Medical University of Graz; Graz, Austria
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