Noninvasive Detection of Cocaine and Heroin Use with Single Fingerprints: Determination of an Environmental Cutoff

Smartphone swabs as an emerging tool for toxicology testing: a proof-of-concept study in a nightclub

OBJECTIVES

Smartphones have become everyday objects on which the accumulation of fingerprints is significant. In addition, a large proportion of the population regularly uses a smartphone, especially younger people. The objective of this study was to evaluate smartphones as a new matrix for toxico-epidemiology.

METHODS

This study was conducted during two separate events (techno and trance) at an electronic music nightclub in Grenoble, France. Data on reported drug use and whether drugs were snorted directly from the surface of the smartphone were collected using an anonymous questionnaire completed voluntarily by drug users. Then, a dry swab was rubbed for 20 s on all sides of the smartphone. The extract was analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry on a Xevo TQ-XS system (Waters).

RESULTS

In total, 122 swabs from 122 drug users were collected. The three main drugs identified were MDMA (n=83), cocaine (n=59), and THC (n=51). Based on declarative data, sensitivity ranged from 73 to 97.2 % and specificity from 71.8 to 88.1 % for MDMA, cocaine, and THC. Other substances were identified such as cocaine adulterants, ketamine, amphetamine, LSD, methamphetamine, CBD, DMT, heroin, mescaline, and several NPS. Numerous medications were also identified, such as antidepressants, anxiolytics, hypnotics, and painkillers. Different use patterns were identified between the two events.

CONCLUSIONS

This proof-of-concept study on 122 subjects shows that smartphone swab analysis could provide a useful and complementary tool for drug testing, especially for harm-reduction programs and toxico-epidemiolgy studies, with acceptable test performance, despite declarative data.

Using the refractive index of latent fingerprints for the quantification and characterisation of sample deposition

Latent fingerprints (LFPs) are predominantly used for personal identification, but in recent years research has shown their potential for drug screening. Despite this there is no standardised collection method to allow accurate drug test interpretation. We sought to help address this by characterising different variables related to sweat deposition in LFPs as the knowledge is limited. A series of experiments were conducted firstly to validate a novel tool called the Ridgeway (Intelligent Fingerprint Ltd. UK) to quantify the amount of sweat deposited from a LFP using the refractive index (RI). A significant positive correlation was observed between the Ridgeway score (Rs) and LFP mass [r = 0.868, p < 0.01]. The Rs was used as means to investigate optimal sampling to characterise sample deposition for drug screening purposes. It was found with a consistent disposition pressure (300 - 400 g) and surface (glass slide) no significant difference was observed between the left and right index finger [left: p = 0.938; right: p = 0.838]. Significantly higher Rs [p<0.01] were obtained when 10 cumulative LFPs were deposited compared to a single LFP, suggesting a larger sweat quantity. We also wanted to investigate optimal eccrine sweat sampling to confirm drug ingestion over drug contamination of the fingerprint. We found that wearing gloves did not significantly improve mean difference in Rs when compared to no gloves [p = 0.239]. To produce eccrine only LFPs, external contamination (e.g. sebaceous sweat) needs to be removed. Soap with lint free tissue was significantly better for this compared to antibacterial hand gel [p<0.01]. Our findings showed that the Ridgeway tool effectively quantified LFPs at the point of deposition using a refractive index and enabled us to establish conditions for consistent LFP sampling.

Determination of carbamazepine in fingerprints: a feasibility study to evaluate adherence in epilepsy patients

Background: Fingerprint drug concentrations can be used as a noninvasive and convenient alternative to evaluate adherence to pharmacotherapy. Methods: Fingerprints were applied over glass slides, extracted and analyzed by ultra-high performance LC-MS/MS. The assay and drug adherence questionnaires were applied to 30 epilepsy patients. Results: The assay had linearity in the range 0.05-10 ng fingerprint-1, with precision of 2.16-7.9% and accuracy of 95.0-102.8%. Carbamazepine (CBZ) levels in fingerprints were stable at 45°C for 15 days. Concentrations in patient samples were 0.06-9.28 ng fingerprint-1. A significant difference (p = 0.003) was found between CBZ concentrations in fingerprints between patient groups divided as low and medium/high adherence. Conclusion: This method can potentially be applied to the identification of epilepsy patients with low adherence to CBZ pharmacotherapy.

Drugs detection in fingerprints

Fingerprints left at a crime scene are used to connect the crime to a person who may have been present there. Fingerprints can also be used as alternative material in forensic toxicology. The detection of drugs in fingerprint samples can be used to show that an individual touching an item has consumed specific drugs. The aim of this study was to check the usefulness of fingerprints in drug analyses and detection of some analytes in this material. Fingerprint samples were collected on glass slides from a volunteer who consumed separately tablets containing pseudoephedrine, codeine, dextromethorphan, and used lidocaine spray. Moreover, fingerprints of individuals receiving sertraline, hydroxyzine and trazodone as part of their long-term treatment were analysed. The detection of drugs was conducted using the liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) technique. After administration of single doses of drugs, they were detected up to 36 h (pseudoephedrine), 24 h (codeine), and less than 6 h (dextromethorphan and lidocaine) with maximum concentrations observed at 1-4 h. In fingerprints of a person who has finished treatment with hydroxyzine and sertraline it was possible to detect these drugs even 20 days after last drug administration. Cetirizine (hydroxyzine metabolite) and mCPP (trazodone metabolite) were determined in fingerprints of individuals under long-term treatment. This work has demonstrated that forensic toxicology can use fingerprints as alternative material. Drugs can be detected in fingerprints even after their single doses. Parent compounds predominate over metabolites in the fingerprints. The detection window depends on the type of drug and duration of the treatment.

Small molecule metabolites: discovery of biomarkers and therapeutic targets

Metabolic abnormalities lead to the dysfunction of metabolic pathways and metabolite accumulation or deficiency which is well-recognized hallmarks of diseases. Metabolite signatures that have close proximity to subject's phenotypic informative dimension, are useful for predicting diagnosis and prognosis of diseases as well as monitoring treatments. The lack of early biomarkers could lead to poor diagnosis and serious outcomes. Therefore, noninvasive diagnosis and monitoring methods with high specificity and selectivity are desperately needed. Small molecule metabolites-based metabolomics has become a specialized tool for metabolic biomarker and pathway analysis, for revealing possible mechanisms of human various diseases and deciphering therapeutic potentials. It could help identify functional biomarkers related to phenotypic variation and delineate biochemical pathways changes as early indicators of pathological dysfunction and damage prior to disease development. Recently, scientists have established a large number of metabolic profiles to reveal the underlying mechanisms and metabolic networks for therapeutic target exploration in biomedicine. This review summarized the metabolic analysis on the potential value of small-molecule candidate metabolites as biomarkers with clinical events, which may lead to better diagnosis, prognosis, drug screening and treatment. We also discuss challenges that need to be addressed to fuel the next wave of breakthroughs.

Fingerprints: A New Specimen for Innovative Applications for the Detection of Xenobiotics

Fingerprints are invisible traces that result from a deposition of sweat and sebum present on the papillary ridges. As sweat and sebum contain drugs, fingerprints are promising since collection is rapid, non-invasive and difficult to falsify. Very limited data are available in the literature, and therefore, it seems opportune to study the transfer of xenobiotics onto the items taken in hand via the fingerprints. Two studies were implemented using the ballpoint pen as a model. The objective of the first study was to compare the nicotine concentrations found on the pens of three smokers and three non-smokers. Five pens, belonging to each subject and used regularly, were rubbed with a cotton swab dipped in methanol and analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). The second study was to analyze the transfer via fingerprints of four volunteers, after administration of 30 mg of codeine. The objective was to determine the feasibility of this study and the time corresponding to the highest concentration of codeine. Over a 24-h period, new pens were handled for 5 min by the four volunteers, rubbed with a cotton swab dipped in methanol, and then analyzed by LC-MS-MS. The nicotine study showed a major difference between the nicotine concentrations obtained from smokers (between 6 and 276 ng/pen) and non-smokers (between 2 and 4 ng/pen). After administration of 30 mg of codeine, the analysis of the pens of the four volunteers allowed to demonstrate the presence of codeine up to 24 h between 9 and 544 pg/pen. Normal hygiene practices did not influence the final result. The highest concentration was observed after 2 h. Morphine was also detected (between 19 and 33 pg/pen). These preliminary results should be considered a demonstration of the interest of fingerprints testing to document drug exposure.

Surface Analysis Techniques in Forensic Science: Successes, Challenges, and Opportunities for Operational Deployment

Surface analysis techniques have rapidly evolved in the last decade. Some of these are already routinely used in forensics, such as for the detection of gunshot residue or for glass analysis. Some surface analysis approaches are attractive for their portability to the crime scene. Others can be very helpful in forensic laboratories owing to their high spatial resolution, analyte coverage, speed, and specificity. Despite this, many proposed applications of the techniques have not yet led to operational deployment. Here, we explore the application of these techniques to the most important traces commonly found in forensic casework. We highlight where there is potential to add value and outline the progress that is needed to achieve operational deployment. We consider within the scope of this review surface mass spectrometry, surface spectroscopy, and surface X-ray spectrometry. We show how these tools show great promise for the analysis of fingerprints, hair, drugs, explosives, and microtraces.

Potential to Use Fingerprints for Monitoring Therapeutic Levels of Isoniazid and Treatment Adherence

A fingerprint offers a convenient, noninvasive sampling matrix for monitoring therapeutic drug use. However, a barrier to widespread adoption of fingerprint sampling is the fact that the sample volume is uncontrolled. Fingerprint samples (n = 140) were collected from patients receiving the antibiotic isoniazid as part of their treatment, as well as from a drug-naive control group (n = 50). The fingerprint samples were analyzed for isoniazid (INH) and acetylisoniazid (AcINH), using liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry. The data set was analyzed retrospectively for metabolites known to be present in eccrine sweat. INH or AcINH was detected in 89% of the fingerprints collected from patients and in 0% of the fingerprints collected from the control group. Metabolites lysine, ornithine, pyroglutamic acid, and taurine were concurrently detected alongside INH/AcINH and were used to determine whether the fingerprint sample was sufficient for testing. Given a sufficient sample volume, the fingerprint test for INH use has sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 100%. Normalization to taurine was found to reduce intradonor variability. Fingerprints are a novel and noninvasive approach to monitor INH therapy. Metabolites can be used as internal markers to demonstrate a sufficient sample volume for testing and reduce intradonor variability.

A sensitive environmental forensic method that determines bisphenol S and A exposure within receipt-handling through fingerprint analysis

As human beings have been consistently exposed to bisphenol A (BPA) and bisphenol S (BPS) derived from various products, the intake of BPS/BPA to humans has been extensively studied. However, using conventional biological matrices such as urine, blood, or dissected skin to detect BPS/BPA in the human body system requires longer exposure time to them, hardly defines the pollutant source of the accumulated BPS/BPA, and is often invasive. Herein, our new approach i.e. fingerprint analysis quantitatively confirms the transfer of BPS/BPA from receipts (specific pollution source) to human skin only within receipt-handling of "20 s". When receipts (fingertip region size; ~1 cm²) containing 100-300 μg of BPS or BPA are handled, 20-40 μg fingerprint^-1 of BPS or BPA is transferred to human skin (fingertip). This transferred amount of BPS/BPA can still be toxic according to the toxicity test using water fleas. As a visual evidence, a fingerprint map that matches the distribution of the absorbed BPS/BPA is developed using a mass spectrometry imaging tool. This is the first study to analyze fingerprints to determine the incorporation mechanism of emerging pollutants. This study provides an efficient and non-invasive environmental forensic tool to analyze amounts and sources of hazardous substances.

Simultaneous determination of 36 hypotensive drugs in fingerprints by ultra performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole composite linear ion trap mass spectrometry

指印中蕴含着供体摄入成分等相关信息,通过对其分析可对供体进行特征刻画,从而为案件侦查提供线索,指印分析也可用于药物摄入的定性检测,因此检验指印中的降压药具有重要的实际应用价值。建立了超高效液相色谱-三重四极杆复合线性离子阱质谱(UPLC-Q-TRAP/MS)同时检测指印中36种降压药的方法。前处理方法采用沉淀蛋白法,使用3×3 cm滤纸采集指印,将滤纸剪碎置于2 mL塑料离心管中,加入0.50 mL甲醇,涡旋混合1 min,超声振荡3 min,取出后以12000 r/min离心5 min,取上清液进样分析。采用ACQUITY UPLC^® BEH C18柱(100 mm×3.0 mm, 1.7 μm)分离,以0.01%甲酸水溶液和甲醇作为流动相进行梯度洗脱。质谱分析采用可编程多反应监测-信息关联采集-增强子离子(SMRM-IDA-EPI)扫描方式,在高灵敏度分析的同时进行二级谱库检索,增加定性结果的准确性。36种药物在0.05~50.00 ng/fingerprint范围内线性关系良好,相关系数(r)大于0.99,检出限和定量限分别为0.001~0.045 ng/fingerprint和0.002~0.050 ng/fingerprint,在0.25、2.50、25.00 ng/fingerprint 3个加标水平下的基质效应为79.0%~119.2%,回收率为79.3%~116.2%,日内精密度为0.2%~18.3%,日间精密度为1.6%~19.1%。使用该方法检测了87名高血压患者指印中的降压药,大部分样本中可检出其所服用的药物。该方法操作简单,灵敏度高,选择性好,适用于指印中降压药的筛查检验。

Quantitative analysis of 17 hypoglycemic drugs in fingerprints using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem hybrid triple quadrupole linear ion trap mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

The objective of this study was to develop, optimize, and validate a method for the determination and quantification of 17 hypoglycemic drugs in fingerprints using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem hybrid triple quadrupole linear ion trap mass spectrometry (UHPLC/QTRAP-MS/MS). We also aimed to apply the present method to the fingerprints collected from patients with hyperglycemia.

METHODS

The scheduled multiple reaction monitoring information-dependent acquisition-enhanced product ion (SMRM-IDA-EPI) scanning mode was utilized. The chromatographic system consisted of an Acquity UHPLC® BEH C18 column (3.0 × 100 mm, 1.7 μm) and a mobile phase of 0.01% (v/v) formic acid in water and methanol. Analytes were extracted via a precipitation protein procedure. The method was validated in accordance with the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidance and applied to the analysis of fingerprint deposits from subjects who had taken the drugs.

RESULTS

The limits of detection (LODs) and the lower limits of quantification (LLOQs) of 17 hypoglycemic drugs were 0.001 to 0.020 and 0.002 to 0.050 ng/fingerprint, respectively. The correlation coefficients (r) for the calibration curves were > 0.99 in the range of 0.050-50.000 ng/fingerprint. The matrix effect and recovery of 17 hypoglycemic drugs at three concentrations ranged from 81.1 to 117.3% and 80.0 to 109.6%, respectively. The validation data (intra- and inter-day combined) for accuracy ranged from 85.5 to 117.2%, the CV (%) data were ≤19.7%. All analytes were found to be stable stored in the autosampler (4°C) for 24 h. This validated method was successfully applied to detect hypoglycemic drugs in fingerprints from patients with hyperglycemia.

CONCLUSIONS

A quantification method for hypoglycemic drugs in fingerprints was developed, optimized, and validated. This sensitive method could be used for drug monitoring and providing reference information in forensic investigations.

Development of a point-of-care test for the detection of MDMA in latent fingerprints using surface plasmon resonance and lateral flow technology

To date, a specific point-of-care test (POCT) for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy, 'E') in latent fingerprints (LFPs) has not been explored. Other POCTs identify MDMA in sweat by detecting the drug as a cross-reactant rather than target analyte, thus decreasing the test's sensitivity. The study's aim was to design a sensitive POCT for the detection of MDMA in LFPs using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and lateral flow immunoassay (LFA) technology. A high-affinity antibody binding pair was identified using the former technique, deeming the pair suitable for a LFA. Titrations of fluorescently labelled antibody and antigen concentrations were tested to identify a sharp drop-in signal upon the addition of MDMA to allow a clear distinction between negative and positive outcomes. We trialled the LFA by producing dose response curves with MDMA and a group of drugs that share a similar chemical structure to MDMA. These were generated through spiking the LFA with increasing levels of drug (0-400 pg/10 μl of MDMA; 0-10,000 pg/10 μl of cross-reactant). Fluorescent test signals were measured using a cartridge reader. The cut-off (threshold) 60 pg/10 μl calculated better cartridge performance (1.00 sensitivity, 0.95 specificity and 0.98 accuracy), when compared with 40 pg/10 μl. The biggest cross-reactant was PMMA (250%), followed by MDEA (183%), MBDB (167%), MDA (16%) and methamphetamine (16%). A sensitive LFP screening tool requiring no sample preparation was successfully designed.

The Future of Analytical and Interpretative Toxicology: Where are We Going and How Do We Get There?

(Forensic) toxicology has faced many challenges, both analytically and interpretatively, especially in relation to an increase in potential drugs of interest. Analytical toxicology and its application to medicine and forensic science have progressed rapidly within the past centuries. Technological innovations have enabled detection of more substances with increasing sensitivity in a variety of matrices. Our understanding of the effects (both intended and unintended) have also increased along with determination and degree of toxicity. However, it is clear there is even more to understand and consider. The analytical focus has been on typical matrices such as blood and urine but other matrices could further increase our understanding, especially in postmortem (PM) situations. Within this context, the role of PM changes and potential redistribution of drugs requires further research and identification of markers of its occurrence and extent. Whilst instrumentation has improved, in the future, nanotechnology may play a role in selective and sensitive analysis as well as bioassays. Toxicologists often only have an advisory impact on pre-analytical and pre-interpretative considerations. The collection of appropriate samples at the right time in an appropriate way as well as obtaining sufficient circumstance background is paramount in ensuring an effective analytical strategy to provide useful results that can be interpreted within context. Nevertheless, key interpretative considerations such as pharmacogenomics and drug-drug interactions as well as determination of tolerance remain and in the future, analytical confirmation of an individual's metabolic profile may support a personalized medicine and judicial approach. This should be supported by the compilation and appropriate application of drug data pursuant to the situation. Specifically, in PM circumstances, data pertaining to where a drug was not/may have been/was contributory will be beneficial with associated pathological considerations. This article describes the challenges faced within toxicology and discusses progress to a future where they are being addressed.

Imaging mass spectrometry: a new way to distinguish dermal contact from administration of cocaine, using a single fingerprint

Here we show a new and significant application area for mass spectrometry imaging. The potential for fingerprints to reveal drug use has been widely reported, with potential applications in forensics and workplace drug testing. However, one unsolved issue is the inability to distinguish between drug administration and contamination by contact. Previous work using bulk mass spectrometry analysis has shown that this distinction can only be definitively made if the hands are washed prior to sample collection. Here, we illustrate how three mass spectrometry imaging approaches, desorption electrospray ionisation (DESI), matrix assisted laser desorption ionisation (MALDI) and time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) can be used to visualise fingerprints at different pixel sizes, ranging from the whole fingerprint down to the pore structure. We show how each of these magnification scales can be used to distinguish between cocaine use and contact. We also demonstrate the first application of water cluster SIMS to a fingerprint sample, which was the sole method tested here that was capable of detecting excreted drug metabolites in fingerprints, while providing spatial resolution sufficient to resolve individual pore structure. We show that after administration of cocaine, lipids and salts in the fingerprint ridges spatially correlate with the cocaine metabolite, benzoylecgonine. In contrast after contact, we have observed that cocaine and its metabolite show a poor spatial correlation with the flow of the ridges.

Simultaneous determination and quantitation of hypolipidemic drugs in fingerprints by UPLC-Q-TRAP/MS

An ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem triple quadrupole compound linear ion trap mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TRAP/MS) method was developed and validated for the detection of hypolipidemic drugs in fingerprints. 13 hypolipidemic drugs were well separated by the gradient elution of 0.01% formic acid in water and methanol at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min within 11 min. The analytes were detected in positive (ESI⁺) and negative (ESI^-) modes and scanned using scheduled multiple reaction monitoring-information dependent acquisition-enhanced product ion (SMRM-IDA-EPI) for best selectivity and sensitivity. The calibration curves showed good linearity in the range of 0.050-50.000 ng/patch with coefficients (r²) higher than 0.9904 for all analytes. Meantime, the LODs and LLOQs were in ranges of 0.001-0.034 and 0.003-0.050 ng/patch. The accuracies, intra-day and inter-day precision ranged from -13.3 to 0.3%, 1.1-10.4% and 3.7-14.5%, respectively. The recoveries ranged from 79.9 to 114.8%, while the absolute and relative matrix effects were in the range of 83.0-107.2% and 2.2-9.7%. By comparing the non-spiked fingerprints from healthy volunteers with the fingerprints obtained from patients, demonstrated that the method was competent for determination and quantitation of hypolipidemic drugs in fingerprints.

Evaluation of Latent Fingerprints for Drug-Screening In A Social Care Setting

Sweat deposited via Latent Fingerprints (LFPs) was previously used to detect cocaine, opioids, cannabis and amphetamine via a point-of-care test (POCT). This screening method combined non-invasive sampling with a rapid result turnaround to produce a qualitative result outside of the laboratory. We report the novel application of a LFP drug screening test in a social care setting. Clients were tested on either an ad-hoc or routine basis using the POCT DOA114 (Intelligent Fingerprint Ltd.) drug screening cartridge. Screening cut-off values were 45, 35 and 95 pg/fingerprint for benzoylecgonine (BZE), morphine and amphetamine analytes, respectively. Confirmation LFP samples (DOA150, Intelligent Fingerprinting Ltd.) and oral fluid (OF) were analysed using UPLC-MS/MS. Thirty-six clients aged 36 ± 11 years participated (53% females). Individuals self-reported alcohol consumption (39%) and smoking (60%). Of 131 screening tests collected over 8 weeks: 14% were positive for cocaine; 2% for opioids; 1% amphetamine. Polydrug use was indicated in 10% of tests. Of 32 LFP confirmation tests, 63% were positive for cocaine and BZE. Opioids were also detected (31%) with the metabolite 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) being the most common (16%). In OF, cocaine was the dominant analyte (9%) followed 6-MAM (5%). Comparing positive LFP screening tests with positive OF samples found 39% and 38% were cocaine and opiate positive respectively. Out of the drugs screened for via the LFP POCT, cocaine was the most prevalent analyte in LFP and OF confirmation samples. The study is a step change in the routine drug screening procedures in a social care setting: especially useful for on-site cocaine detection in clients whose drug use was being monitored. Additionally, testing was easily accepted by clients and social care workers.

DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Heroin and Desomorphine

Opioids are arguably one of the most important pharmacologic classes, mainly due to their rich history, their useful and potent analgesic effects, and also, just as importantly, their "Dark Side", constituted by their reinforcing properties that have led countless of users to a spiral of addiction, biological dependence, tolerance, withdrawal syndromes, and death. Among the most significant abused and addictive known opioids are heroin and desomorphine, both synthetic derivatives of morphine that belong to the 4,5-epoxymorphinan structural chemical group of the opioid family drugs. These agents share not only structural, pharmacological, and epidemiological features but also a common geographical distribution. A drop in Afghan heroin production and its "exports" to Russia gave rise to widespread consumption of desomorphine in ex-Soviet republics during the first decade of the 21st century, representing an economical and accessible alternative for misusers to this sort of derivative. Herein we review the state of the art of history, chemistry and synthesis, pharmacology, and impact on society of these "cursed cousins".

Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.

Distinguishing between Contact and Administration of Heroin from a Single Fingerprint using High Resolution Mass Spectrometry

Fingerprints have been proposed as a promising new matrix for drug testing. In previous work it has been shown that a fingerprint can be used to distinguish between drug users and nonusers. Herein, we look at the possibility of using a fingerprint to distinguish between dermal contact and administration of heroin. Fingerprint samples were collected from (i) 10 patients attending a drug rehabilitation clinic, (ii) 50 nondrug users and (iii) participants who touched 2 mg street heroin, before and after various hand cleaning procedures. Oral fluid was also taken from the patients. All samples were analyzed using a liquid chromatography—high resolution mass spectrometry method validated in previous work for heroin and 6-AM. The HRMS data were analyzed retrospectively for morphine, codeine, 6-acetylcodeine and noscapine. Heroin and 6-AM were detected in all fingerprint samples produced from contact with heroin, even after hand washing. In contrast, morphine, acetylcodeine and noscapine were successfully removed after hand washing. In patient samples, the detection of morphine, noscapine and acetylcodeine (alongside heroin and 6-AM) gave a closer agreement to patient testimony on whether they had recently used heroin than the detection of heroin and 6-AM alone. This research highlights the importance of washing hands prior to donating a fingerprint sample to distinguish recent contact with heroin from heroin use.

Interpol review of fingermarks and other body impressions 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in fingerprint and bodily impression sciences from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20 Review%20 Papers%202019. pdf.

On the relevance of cocaine detection in a fingerprint

The finding that drugs and metabolites can be detected from fingerprints is of potential relevance to forensic science and as well as toxicology and clinical testing. However, discriminating between dermal contact and ingestion of drugs has never been verified experimentally. The inability to interpret the result of finding a drug or metabolite in a fingerprint has prevented widespread adoption of fingerprints in drug testing and limits the probative value of detecting drugs in fingermarks. A commonly held belief is that the detection of metabolites of drugs of abuse in fingerprints can be used to confirm a drug has been ingested. However, we show here that cocaine and its primary metabolite, benzoylecgonine, can be detected in fingerprints of non-drug users after contact with cocaine. Additionally, cocaine was found to persist above environmental levels for up to 48 hours after contact. Therefore the detection of cocaine and benzoylecgonine (BZE) in fingermarks can be forensically significant, but do not demonstrate that a person has ingested the substance. In contrast, the data here shows that a drug test from a fingerprint (where hands can be washed prior to donating a sample) CAN distinguish between contact and ingestion of cocaine. If hands were washed prior to giving a fingerprint, BZE was detected only after the administration of cocaine. Therefore BZE can be used to distinguish cocaine contact from cocaine ingestion, provided donors wash their hands prior to sampling. A test based on the detection of BZE in at least one of two donated fingerprint samples has accuracy 95%, sensitivity 90% and specificity of 100% (n = 86).

Natural Perspiration Sampling and in Situ Electrochemical Analysis with Hydrogel Micropatches for User-Identifiable and Wireless Chemo/Biosensing

Recent advances in microelectronics, microfluidics, and electrochemical sensing platforms have enabled the development of an emerging class of fully integrated personal health monitoring devices that exploit sweat to noninvasively access biomarker information. Despite such advances, effective sweat sampling remains a significant challenge for reliable biomarker analysis, with many existing methods requiring active stimulation (e.g., iontophoresis, exercise, heat). Natural perspiration offers a suitable alternative as sweat can be collected with minimal effort on the part of the user. To leverage this phenomenon, we devised a thin hydrogel micropatch (THMP), which simultaneously serves as an interface for sweat sampling and a medium for electrochemical sensing. To characterize the performance of the THMP, caffeine and lactate were selected as two representative target molecules. We demonstrated the suitability of the sampling method to track metabolic patterns, as well as to render sample-to-answer biomarker data for personal monitoring (through coupling with an electrochemical sensing system). To inform its potential application, this biomarker sampling and sensing system is incorporated within a distributed terminal-based sensing network, which uniquely capitalizes on the fingertip as a site for simultaneous biomarker data sampling and user identification.

Detection of mephedrone and its metabolites in fingerprints from a controlled human administration study by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and paper spray-mass spectrometry

Mephedrone and one of its metabolites have been detected for the first-time in fingerprints collected from a controlled human mephedrone administration study.

Paper spray screening and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry confirmation for medication adherence testing: A two-step process

RATIONALE

Paper spray offers a rapid screening test without the need for sample preparation. The incomplete extraction of paper spray allows for further testing using more robust, selective and sensitive techniques such as liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS). Here we develop a two-step process of paper spray followed by LC/MS to (1) rapidly screen a large number of samples and (2) confirm any disputed results. This demonstrates the applicability for testing medication adherence from a fingerprint.

METHODS

Following paper spray analysis, drugs of abuse samples were analysed using LC/MS. All analyses were completed using a Q Exactive™ Plus Orbitrap™ mass spectrometer. This two-step procedure was applied to fingerprints collected from patients on a maintained dose of the antipsychotic drug quetiapine.

RESULTS

The extraction efficiency of paper spray for two drugs of abuse and metabolites was found to be between 15 and 35% (analyte dependent). For short acquisition times, the extraction efficiency was found to vary between replicates by less than 30%, enabling subsequent analysis by LC/MS. This two-step process was then applied to fingerprints collected from two patients taking the antipsychotic drug quetiapine, which demonstrates how a negative screening result from paper spray can be resolved using LC/MS.

CONCLUSIONS

We have shown for the first time the sequential analysis of the same sample using paper spray and LC/MS, as well as the detection of an antipsychotic drug from a fingerprint. We propose that this workflow may also be applied to any type of sample compatible with paper spray, and will be especially convenient where only one sample is available for analysis.

A multi-laboratory investigation of drug background levels

Identifying and quantifying the drug background in operational environments such as forensic laboratories is an emerging body of research. Knowing these levels is crucial to addressing issues like occupational exposure risk - due to the emergence of potent novel psychoactive substances and synthetic opioids - and data integrity - due to improvements in instrument sensitivity. The work presented here builds upon a prior study to provide a broader representation of the average drug background levels found on surfaces in forensic laboratories. Over 700 samples from 20 laboratories were collected, extracted, and analyzed quantitatively using LC-MS/MS, and qualitatively using TD-DART-MS. Quantitative analysis by LC-MS/MS included a panel of 18 drugs while the non-targeted qualitative analysis by TD-DART-MS screened for over three hundred drugs and excipients. The study focused primarily on surfaces within the drug unit and evidence receiving area of the laboratories, but also investigated other operational units (crime scene, drug interdiction, latent prints, and toxicology) as well as report writing. Background levels were highest within the drug unit of the laboratory, though detectable (tens of nanograms) levels were observed in nearly all sampled areas. The data from this expanded study plays a critical role in addressing laboratory concerns such as establishing drug identification reporting limits for new instrumentation and establishing new workflow or cleaning protocols while also providing a more comprehensive dataset for general environmental background studies.

Is forensic science in danger of extinction?

Observations of modern day forensic science has prompted asking the question of whether this field is in danger of extinction. Although there have undoubtedly been meaningful advancements in analytical capabilities, we have overlooked several unintended practical and philosophical consequences. This article addresses three main areas of concern: the declining role of the generalist in an era of increased specialization, the role of education in preparing the next generation of forensic scientists, and the implementation of advanced instrumentation with a focus on statistical significance and field deployable instrumentation.