Statins Induce a DAF-16/Foxo-dependent Longevity Phenotype via JNK-1 through Mevalonate Depletion in C. elegans

Comprehensive evaluation of lifespan-extending molecules in C. elegans

The nematode C. elegans has long served as a gold-standard model organism in aging research, particularly since the discovery of long-lived mutants in conserved aging pathways including daf-2 (IGF1) and age-1 (PI3K). Its short lifespan and small size make it highly suitable for high-throughput experiments. While numerous molecules have been tested for their effects on C. elegans lifespan, consensus is still lacking regarding the most effective and reproducible compounds. Confounding effects, especially those related to drug-bacteria interactions, remain a contentious issue in the literature. In this study, we evaluated 16 of the most frequently reported lifespan-extending molecules in C. elegans, examining their effects on lifespan with two different diets (live and UV-killed OP50). In addition, we assessed the compounds' impact on bacterial growth, their effects on various nematode strains, and the impact of the starting age of treatment. Our findings first confirmed robust lifespan extension by many, but not all, of the 16 tested compounds from the literature, and revealed that some of them could be combined to obtain additive effects. Additionally, we showed that some of these compounds also extend lifespan in the fly D. melanogaster, demonstrating a conserved effect across species. Finally, by expanding our screen to a broader pool of molecules, we identified novel lifespan-extending compounds in C. elegans.

Patchouli essential oil extends the lifespan and healthspan of Caenorhabditis elegans through JNK-1/DAF-16

AIMS

Patchouli essential oil (PEO) is the major active ingredient of a famous medicinal plant Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. This study aims to investigate the anti-aging activities of PEO and its major component, and elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms.

MAIN METHODS

The anti-aging activities of PEO and its main component patchouli alcohol (PA) were investigated by examining the lifespan, senescence associated indicators as well as stress resistance of Caenorhabditis elegans. RNA-Sequencing was performed to analyze differentially expressed genes and the enrichments of GO and KEGG pathways in nematodes treated with PEO. The potential anti-aging target was predicted using a network pharmacology method and molecular docking. The underlying mechanism of senescence-delaying action was explored using C. elegans mutants and GFP transgenic strains.

KEY FINDINGS

PEO modulated lifespan and healthspan extension of worms, ameliorated the senescence characterizations, and increased the survival in stress resistance assays. PEO reduced spawning, lipid accumulation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels of nematodes. The levels of anti-oxidative genes and proteins were obviously upregulated after PEO treatment. Moreover, PA was identified to be an ingredient for PEO-mediated nematode longevity. The JNK-1/DAF-16 signaling pathway played a critical role in PEO/PA-mediated longevity.

SIGNIFICANCE

The findings revealed that PEO and its major component PA showed significant anti-aging activity through modulating the JNK-1/DAF-16 signaling pathway, which provides a promising strategy to treat aging and age-related diseases.

Host-microbe interactions rewire metabolism in a C. elegans model of leucine breakdown deficiency

In humans, defects in leucine catabolism cause a variety of inborn errors in metabolism. Here, we use Caenorhabditis elegans to investigate the impact of mutations in mccc-1, an enzyme that functions in leucine breakdown. Through untargeted metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses we find extensive metabolic rewiring that helps to detoxify leucine breakdown intermediates via conversion into previously undescribed metabolites and to synthesize mevalonate, an essential metabolite. We also find that the leucine breakdown product 3,3-hydroxymethylbutyrate (HMB), commonly used as a human muscle-building supplement, is toxic to C. elegans and that bacteria modulate this toxicity. Unbiased genetic screens revealed interactions between the host and microbe, where components of bacterial pyrimidine biosynthesis mitigate HMB toxicity. Finally, upregulated ketone body metabolism genes in mccc-1 mutants provide an alternative route for biosynthesis of the mevalonate precursor 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA. Our work demonstrates that a complex host-bacteria interplay rewires metabolism to allow host survival when leucine catabolism is perturbed.

Repurposing effect of cardiovascular-metabolic drug to increase lifespan: a systematic review of animal studies and current clinical trial progress

With the increase in life expectancy, aging has emerged as a significant health concern. Due to its various mechanisms of action, cardiometabolic drugs are often repurposed for other indications, including aging. This systematic review analyzed and highlighted the repositioning potential of cardiometabolic drugs to increase lifespan as an aging parameter in animal studies and supplemented by information from current clinical trial registries. Systematic searching in animal studies was performed based on PICO: "animal," "cardiometabolic drug," and "lifespan." All clinical trial registries were also searched from the WHO International Clinical Trial Registry Platform (ICTRP). Analysis of 49 animal trials and 10 clinical trial registries show that various cardiovascular and metabolic drugs have the potential to target lifespan. Metformin, acarbose, and aspirin are the three most studied drugs in animal trials. Aspirin and acarbose are the promising ones, whereas metformin exhibits various results. In clinical trial registries, metformin, omega-3 fatty acid, acarbose, and atorvastatin are currently cardiometabolic drugs that are repurposed to target aging. Published clinical trial results show great potential for omega-3 and metformin in healthspan. Systematic Review Registration: crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=457358, identifier: CRD42023457358.

Oocytes orchestrate protein prenylation for mitochondrial function through selective inactivation of cholesterol biosynthesis in murine species

Emerging research and clinical evidence suggest that the metabolic activity of oocytes may play a pivotal role in reproductive anomalies. However, the intrinsic mechanisms governing oocyte development regulated by metabolic enzymes remain largely unknown. Our investigation demonstrates that geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase1 (Ggps1), the crucial enzyme in the mevalonate pathway responsible for synthesizing isoprenoid metabolite geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate from farnesyl pyrophosphate, is essential for oocyte maturation in mice. Our findings reveal that the deletion of Ggps1 that prevents protein prenylation in fully grown oocytes leads to subfertility and offspring metabolic defects without affecting follicle development. Oocytes that lack Ggps1 exhibit disrupted mitochondrial homeostasis and the mitochondrial defects arising from oocytes are inherited by the fetal offspring. Mechanistically, the excessive farnesylation of mitochondrial ribosome protein, Dap3, and decreased levels of small G proteins mediate the mitochondrial dysfunction induced by Ggps1 deficiency. Additionally, a significant reduction in Ggps1 levels in oocytes is accompanied by offspring defects when females are exposed to a high-cholesterol diet. Collectively, this study establishes that mevalonate pathway-protein prenylation is vital for mitochondrial function in oocyte maturation and provides evidence that the disrupted protein prenylation resulting from an imbalance between farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate is the major mechanism underlying impairment of oocyte quality induced by high cholesterol.

Computational Construction of Toxicant Signaling Networks

Humans and animals are regularly exposed to compounds that may have adverse effects on health. The Toxicity Forecaster (ToxCast) program was developed to use high throughput screening assays to quickly screen chemicals by measuring their effects on many biological end points. Many of these assays test for effects on cellular receptors and transcription factors (TFs), under the assumption that a toxicant may perturb normal signaling pathways in the cell. We hypothesized that we could reconstruct the intermediate proteins in these pathways that may be directly or indirectly affected by the toxicant, potentially revealing important physiological processes not yet tested for many chemicals. We integrate data from ToxCast with a human protein interactome to build toxicant signaling networks that contain physical and signaling protein interactions that may be affected as a result of toxicant exposure. To build these networks, we developed the EdgeLinker algorithm, which efficiently finds short paths in the interactome that connect the receptors to TFs for each toxicant. We performed multiple evaluations and found evidence suggesting that these signaling networks capture biologically relevant effects of toxicants. To aid in dissemination and interpretation, interactive visualizations of these networks are available at http://graphspace.org.

Testing the evidence that lifespan-extending compound interventions are conserved across laboratory animal model species

A growing number of pharmaceutical and small molecule interventions are reported to extend the lifespan of laboratory animals including Caenorhabditis, Drosophila, and mouse. However, the degree to which these pro-longevity interventions are conserved across species is unclear. Here, we took two approaches to ask the question: to what extent do longevity intervention studies in Caenorhabditis and Drosophila recapitulate effects on mouse lifespan? The first approach analyzes all published reports on longevity in the literature collated by the DrugAge database, and the second approach focused on results designed for reproducibility as reported from the NIA-supported Interventions Testing Program (ITP) and the Caenorhabditis Interventions Testing Program (CITP). Using published data sources, we identify only modest sensitivity and specificity of Drosophila interventional studies for identifying pro-longevity compounds in mouse lifespan studies. Surprisingly, reported studies in C. elegans show little predictive value for identifying drugs that extend lifespan in mice. The results therefore suggest caution should be used when making assumptions about the translatability of lifespan-extending compounds across species, including human intervention.

Network Analysis Reveals the Molecular Bases of Statin Pleiotropy That Vary with Genetic Background

Many approved drugs are pleiotropic: for example, statins, whose main cholesterol-lowering activity is complemented by anticancer and prodiabetogenic mechanisms involving poorly characterized genetic interaction networks. We investigated these using the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genetic model, where most genetic interactions known are limited to the statin-sensitive S288C genetic background. We therefore broadened our approach by investigating gene interactions to include two statin-resistant genetic backgrounds: UWOPS87-2421 and Y55. Networks were functionally focused by selection of HMG1 and BTS1 mevalonate pathway genes for detection of genetic interactions. Networks, multilayered by genetic background, were analyzed for key genes using network centrality (degree, betweenness, and closeness), pathway enrichment, functional community modules, and Gene Ontology. Specifically, we found modification genes related to dysregulated endocytosis and autophagic cell death. To translate results to human cells, human orthologues were searched for other drug targets, thus identifying candidates for synergistic anticancer bioactivity. IMPORTANCE Atorvastatin is a highly successful drug prescribed to lower cholesterol and prevent cardiovascular disease in millions of people. Though much of its effect comes from inhibiting a key enzyme in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway, genes in this pathway interact with genes in other pathways, resulting in 15% of patients suffering painful muscular side effects and 50% having inadequate responses. Such multigenic complexity may be unraveled using gene networks assembled from overlapping pairs of genes that complement each other. We used the unique power of yeast genetics to construct genome-wide networks specific to atorvastatin bioactivity in three genetic backgrounds to represent the genetic variation and varying response to atorvastatin in human individuals. We then used algorithms to identify key genes and their associated FDA-approved drugs in the networks, which resulted in the distinction of drugs that may synergistically enhance the known anticancer activity of atorvastatin.

Molecular inhibition of RAS signalling to target ageing and age-related health

The RAS/MAPK pathway is a highly conserved signalling pathway with a well-established role in cancer. Mutations that hyperactivate this pathway are associated with unregulated cell proliferation. Evidence from a range of model organisms also links RAS/MAPK signalling to ageing. Genetic approaches that reduce RAS/MAPK signalling activity extend lifespan and also improve healthspan, delaying the onset and/or progression of age-related functional decline. Given its role in cancer, therapeutic interventions that target and inhibit this pathway's key components are under intense investigation. The consequent availability of small molecule inhibitors raises the possibility of repurposing these compounds to ameliorate the deleterious effects of ageing. Here, we review evidence that RAS/MAPK signalling inhibitors already in clinical use, such as trametinib, acarbose, statins, metformin and dihydromyricetin, lead to lifespan extension and to improved healthspan in a range of model systems. These findings suggest that the repurposing of small molecule inhibitors of RAS/MAPK signalling might offer opportunities to improve health during ageing, and to delay or prevent the development of age-related disease. However, challenges to this approach, including poor tolerance to treatment in older adults or development of drug resistance, first need to be resolved before successful clinical implementation.

Summary: This Review critically discusses the links between RAS signalling and ageing, and how RAS inhibitors could extend lifespan and enhance healthspan.

Zoledronate Extends Health Span and Survival via the Mevalonate Pathway in a FOXO-dependent Manner

Over recent decades, increased longevity has not been paralleled by extended health span, resulting in more years spent with multiple diseases in older age. As such, interventions to improve health span are urgently required. Zoledronate (Zol) is a nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate, which inhibits the farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase enzyme, central to the mevalonate pathway. It is already used clinically to prevent fractures in osteoporotic patients, who have been reported to derive unexpected and unexplained survival benefits. Using Drosophila as a model we determined the effects of Zol on life span, parameters of health span (climbing ability and intestinal dysplasia), and the ability to confer resistance to oxidative stress using a combination of genetically manipulated Drosophila strains and Western blotting. Our study shows that Zol extended life span, improved climbing activity, and reduced intestinal epithelial dysplasia and permeability with age. Mechanistic studies showed that Zol conferred resistance to oxidative stress and reduced accumulation of X-ray-induced DNA damage via inhibition of farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase. Moreover, Zol was associated with inhibition of phosphorylated AKT in the mammalian traget of rapamycin pathway downstream of the mevalonate pathway and required dFOXO for its action, both molecules associated with increased longevity. Taken together, our work indicates that Zol, a drug already widely used to prevent osteoporosis and dosed only once a year, modulates important mechanisms of aging. Its repurposing holds great promise as a treatment to improve health span.

Pharmaceutical and nutraceutical activation of FOXO3 for healthy longevity

Life expectancy has increased substantially over the last 150 years. Yet this means that now most people also spend a greater length of time suffering from various age-associated diseases. As such, delaying age-related functional decline and extending healthspan, the period of active older years free from disease and disability, is an overarching objective of current aging research. Geroprotectors, compounds that target pathways that causally influence aging, are increasingly recognized as a means to extend healthspan in the aging population. Meanwhile, FOXO3 has emerged as a geroprotective gene intricately involved in aging and healthspan. FOXO3 genetic variants are linked to human longevity, reduced disease risks, and even self-reported health. Therefore, identification of FOXO3-activating compounds represents one of the most direct candidate approaches to extending healthspan in aging humans. In this work, we review compounds that activate FOXO3, or influence healthspan or lifespan in a FOXO3-dependent manner. These compounds can be classified as pharmaceuticals, including PI3K/AKT inhibitors and AMPK activators, antidepressants and antipsychotics, muscle relaxants, and HDAC inhibitors, or as nutraceuticals, including primary metabolites involved in cell growth and sustenance, and secondary metabolites including extracts, polyphenols, terpenoids, and other purified natural compounds. The compounds documented here provide a basis and resource for further research and development, with the ultimate goal of promoting healthy longevity in humans.

Role of Forkhead Box Protein O1 (FoxO1) in Stroke: A Literature Review

Stroke is one of the most prevalent causes of death around the world. When a stroke occurs, many cellular signaling cascades and regulators are activated, which results in severe cellular dysfunction and debilitating long-term disability. One crucial regulator of cell fate and function is mammalian Forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1). Many studies have found FoxO1 to be implicated in many cellular processes, including regulating gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. During a stroke, modifications of FoxO1 have been linked to a variety of functions, such as inducing cell death and inflammation, inhibiting oxidative injury, affecting the blood brain barrier (BBB), and regulating hepatic gluconeogenesis. For these functions of FoxO1, different measures and treatments were applied to FoxO1 after ischemia. However, the subtle mechanisms of post-transcriptional modification and the role of FoxO1 are still elusive and even contradictory in the development of stroke. The determination of these mechanisms will lead to further enlightenment for FoxO1 signal transduction and the identification of targeted drugs. The regulation and function of FoxO1 may provide an important way for the prevention and treatment of diseases. Overall, the functions of FoxO1 are multifactorial, and this paper will summarize all of the significant pathways in which FoxO1 plays an important role during stroke damage and recovery.

Effects of High Dietary Carbohydrate and Lipid Intake on the Lifespan of C. elegans

Health and lifespan are influenced by dietary nutrients, whose balance is dependent on the supply or demand of each organism. Many studies have shown that an increased carbohydrate–lipid intake plays a critical role in metabolic dysregulation, which impacts longevity. Caenorhabditis elegans has been successfully used as an in vivo model to study the effects of several factors, such as genetic, environmental, diet, and lifestyle factors, on the molecular mechanisms that have been linked to healthspan, lifespan, and the aging process. There is evidence showing the causative effects of high glucose on lifespan in different diabetic models; however, the precise biological mechanisms affected by dietary nutrients, specifically carbohydrates and lipids, as well as their links with lifespan and longevity, remain unknown. Here, we provide an overview of the deleterious effects caused by high-carbohydrate and high-lipid diets, as well as the molecular signals that affect the lifespan of C. elegans; thus, understanding the detailed molecular mechanisms of high-glucose- and lipid-induced changes in whole organisms would allow the targeting of key regulatory factors to ameliorate metabolic disorders and age-related diseases.

Ginsenoside Prolongs the Lifespan of C. elegans via Lipid Metabolism and Activating the Stress Response Signaling Pathway

Panax ginseng is a valuable traditional Chinese medicine in Northeast China. Ginsenoside, the active component of ginseng, has not been investigated much for its effects on aging and its underlying mechanism(s) of action. Here, we investigated the effects of total ginsenoside (TG), a mixture of the primary active ginsenosides from Panax ginseng, on the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). We found that TG extended the lifespan of C. elegans and reduced lipofuscin accumulation. Moreover, TG increased the survival of C. elegans in response to heat and oxidative stress via the reduction of ROS. Next, we used RNA-seq to fully define the antiaging mechanism(s) of TG. The KEGG pathway analysis showed that TG can prolong the lifespan and is involved in the longevity regulating pathway. qPCR showed that TG upregulated the expression of nrh-80, daf-12, daf-16, hsf-1 and their downstream genes. TG also reduced the fat accumulation and promoted lipid metabolism. Moreover, TG failed to extend the lifespan of daf-16 and hsf-1 mutants, highlighting their role in the antiaging effects of TG in C. elegans. The four main constitution of TG were then confirmed by HPLC and included ginsenoside Re, Rg1, Rg2 and Rd. Of the ginsenosides, only ginsenoside Rd prolonged the lifespan of C. elegans to levels comparable to TG. These findings provided mechanistic insight into the antiaging effects of ginsenoside in C. elegans.

Differential Responses of Methionine Sulfoxide Reductases A and B to Anoxia and Oxidative Stress in the Freshwater Turtle Trachemys scripta

Oxidative stress has been acknowledged as a major factor in aging, senescence and neurodegenerative conditions. Mammalian models are susceptible to these stresses following the restoration of oxygen after anoxia; however, some organisms including the freshwater turtle Trachemys scripta can withstand repeated anoxia and reoxygenation without apparent pathology. T. scripta thus provides us with an alternate vertebrate model to investigate physiological mechanisms of neuroprotection. The objective of this study was to investigate the antioxidant methionine sulfoxide reductase system (Msr) in turtle neuronal tissue. We examined brain transcript and protein levels of MsrA and MsrB and examined the potential for the transcription factor FOXO3a to regulate the oxygen-responsive changes in Msr in vitro. We found that Msr mRNA and protein levels are differentially upregulated during anoxia and reoxygenation, and when cells were exposed to chemical oxidative stress. However, while MsrA and MsrB3 levels increased when cell cultures were exposed to chemical oxidative stress, this induction was not enhanced by treatment with epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), which has previously been shown to enhance FOXO3a levels in the turtle. These results suggest that FOXO3a and Msr protect the cells from oxidative stress through different molecular pathways, and that both the Msr pathway and EGCG may be therapeutic targets to treat diseases related to oxidative damage.

Cortisol promotes stress tolerance via DAF-16 in Caenorhabditis elegans

In this study, we studied the effects of cortisol and cortisone on the age-related decrease in locomotion in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and on the tolerance to heat stress at 35 °C and to oxidative stress induced by the exposure to 0.1% H₂O₂. Changes in mRNA expression levels of C. elegans genes related to stress tolerance were also analyzed. Cortisol treatment restored nematode movement following heat stress and increased viability under oxidative stress, but also shortened worm lifespan. Cortisone, a cortisol precursor, also restored movement after heat stress. Additionally, cortisol treatment increased mRNA expression of the hsp-12.6 and sod-3 genes. Furthermore, cortisol treatment failed to restore movement of daf-16-deficient mutants after heat stress, whereas cortisone failed to restore the movement of dhs-30-deficient mutants after heat stress. In conclusion, the results suggested that cortisol promoted stress tolerance via DAF-16 but shortened the lifespan, whereas cortisone promoted stress tolerance via DHS-30.

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Cortisol promoted anti-aging, heat and oxidative stress tolerance but shorten life span

•Cortisone promoted anti-aging and heat stress tolerance

•Heat and oxidative stress tolerance induced by cortisol depended on DAF-16 and SKN-1, respectively.

•Cortisone was converted to cortisol via DHS-30

Conserved statin-mediated activation of the p38-MAPK pathway protects Caenorhabditis elegans from the cholesterol-independent effects of statins

OBJECTIVE

Statins are a group of medications that reduce cholesterol synthesis by inhibiting the activity of HMG-CoA reductase, a key enzyme in the mevalonate pathway. The clinical use of statins to lower excess cholesterol levels has revolutionized the cardiovascular field and increased the survival of millions, but some patients have adverse side effects. A growing body of data suggests that some of the beneficial and adverse effects of statins, including their anti-inflammatory, anti-tumorigenic, and myopathic activities, are cholesterol-independent. However, the underlying mechanisms for these effects of statins are not well defined.

METHODS

Because Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) lacks the cholesterol synthesis branch of the mevalonate pathway, this organism is a powerful system to unveil the cholesterol-independent effects of statins. We used genetic and biochemical approaches in C. elegans and cultured macrophage-derived murine cells to study the cellular response to statins.

RESULTS

We found that statins activate a conserved p38-MAPK (p38) cascade and that the protein geranylgeranylation branch of the mevalonate pathway links the effect of statins to the activation of this p38 pathway. We propose that the blockade of geranylgeranylation impairs the function of specific small GTPases we identified as upstream regulators of the p38 pathway. Statin-mediated p38 activation in C. elegans results in the regulation of programs of innate immunity, stress, and metabolism. In agreement with this regulation, knockout of the p38 pathway results in the hypersensitivity of C. elegans to statins. Treating cultured mammalian cells with clinical doses of statins results in the activation of the same p38 pathway, which upregulates the COX-2 protein, a major regulator of innate immunity in mammals.

CONCLUSIONS

Statins activate an evolutionarily conserved p38 pathway to regulate metabolism and innate immunity. Our results highlight the cytoprotective role of p38 activation under statin treatment in vivo and propose that this activation underlies many of the critical cholesterol-independent effects of statins.

Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin Type-1 Channels as a Potential Target for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular disease is one of the chronic conditions with the highest mortality rate in the world. Underlying conditions such as hypertension, metabolic disorders, and habits like smoking are contributors to the manifestation of cardiovascular diseases. The treatment of cardiovascular diseases is inseparable from the development of drugs. Consequently, this has led to many researchers to focus on the search for effective drug targets. The transient receptor potential channel Ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) subtype is a non-selective cation channel, which belongs to the transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channel. Previous studies have shown that members of the TRP family contribute significantly to cardiovascular disease. However, many researchers have not explored the role of TRPA1 as a potential target for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, recent studies revealed that TRPA1 is commonly expressed in the vascular endothelium. The endothelium is linked to the causes of some cardiovascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis, myocardial fibrosis, heart failure, and arrhythmia. The activation of TRPA1 has a positive effect on atherosclerosis, but it has a negative effect on other cardiovascular diseases such as myocardial fibrosis and heart failure. This review introduces the structural and functional characteristics of TRPA1 and its importance on vascular physiology and common cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, this review summarizes some evidence that TRPA1 is correlated to cardiovascular disease risk factors.

Plant and fungal products that extend lifespan in Caenorhabditis elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a useful model to study aging due to its short lifespan, ease of manipulation, and available genetic tools. Several molecules and extracts derived from plants and fungi extend the lifespan of C. elegans by modulating aging-related pathways that are conserved in more complex organisms. Modulation of aging pathways leads to activation of autophagy, mitochondrial biogenesis and expression of antioxidant and detoxifying enzymes in a manner similar to caloric restriction. Low and moderate concentrations of plant and fungal molecules usually extend lifespan, while high concentrations are detrimental, consistent with a lifespan-modulating mechanism involving hormesis. We review here molecules and extracts derived from plants and fungi that extend the lifespan of C. elegans, and explore the possibility that these natural substances may produce health benefits in humans.