Efficacy and safety of thrice-weekly insulin degludec in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes assessed by continuous glucose monitoring

The Safety and Efficacy of Second-Generation Basal Insulin Analogues in Adults with Type 2 Diabetes at Risk of Hypoglycemia and Use in Other Special Populations: A Narrative Review

Hypoglycemia is a major barrier impeding glycemic control in persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus and creates a substantial burden on the healthcare system. Certain populations that require special attention, such as older adults and individuals with renal impairment, a longer duration of diabetes or those who have experienced prior hypoglycemia, may be at a higher risk of hypoglycemia, particularly with insulin treatment. Second-generation basal insulin analogues (insulin glargine 300 U/mL and degludec) have demonstrated reductions in hypoglycemia compared with insulin glargine 100 U/mL although evidence of this benefit across specific populations is less clear. In this review we summarize the literature with respect to the efficacy and safety data for second-generation basal insulin analogues in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus who are at risk of hypoglycemia or who require special attention. Randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses and real-world evidence demonstrate that the use of second-generation basal insulin analogues is associated with less hypoglycemia compared with insulin glargine 100 U/mL without compromising glycated hemoglobin control. A reduced risk of hypoglycemia with second-generation basal insulin analogues was evident in older adults and in individuals with obesity, renal impairment, a history of cardiovascular disease or a long duration of insulin use. Further studies are needed in other populations, including those with more severe renal impairment or hepatic dysfunction, the hospitalized population and those with cognitive impairment. Overall, less hypoglycemia associated with second-generation basal insulin analogues may help reduce barriers for insulin use, improve adherence and offset the costs of hypoglycemia-related healthcare resource utilization.

Suitable Use of Injectable Agents to Overcome Hypoglycemia Risk, Barriers, and Clinical Inertia in Community-Dwelling Older Adults with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

The management of type 2 diabetes mellitus in older adults requires a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between the disease (medical) and the functional, psychological/cognitive, and social geriatric domains, to individualize both glycemic targets and therapeutic approaches. Prevention of hypoglycemia is a major priority that should be addressed as soon as its presence or risk is detected, adjusting the target and therapeutics accordingly. Nonetheless, treatment intensification should not be neglected when applicable, consistent with recommendations from organizations such as the American Geriatrics Society and the American Diabetes Association, to reduce not only long-term macrovascular and microvascular complications (individualization), but also short-term complications from hyperglycemia (polyuria, volume depletion, urinary incontinence). Such complications can negatively impact the physical and cognitive function of older adults, worsen their quality of life, and additionally affect their families and society. We emphasize individualization, utilizing the multiple classes of antihyperglycemic agents available. Metformin remains as first-line therapy, and additional agents offer advantages and disadvantages that ought to be considered when developing a patient-centric plan of care. For selected cases, injectable therapies such as long-acting basal insulin analogs and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists can offer advantages to counter hypoglycemia risk, patient-related barriers, and clinical inertia. Furthermore, some injectable agents could potentially simplify regimens while providing safe and effective glycemic control. In this review, we discuss the use of injectable therapies for selected community-dwelling older adults, barriers to transition to injectable therapy, and measures aimed at removing these barriers and assisting physicians and their teams to transition older patients to injectable therapies when appropriate.

Effectiveness of Insulin Degludec in Thai Patients with Diabetes Mellitus: Real-World Evidence From a Specialized Diabetes Center

Background Insulin degludec, an ultra-long-acting insulin analogue, has been available in Thailand since October 2016. Although clinical trial results revealed less hypoglycemia, data from real-world settings is limited especially in Asian patients. This study aimed to evaluate prospectively the real-world effectiveness, safety, quality of life (QOL) and patient satisfaction with insulin degludec among Thai patients with diabetes mellitus (DM).

Methods From October 2016 to September 2017, all patients who had started insulin degludec for at least 3 months were observed and evaluated at baseline, 3, 6, and 12 months. QOL was assessed using WHOQOL-BREF-THAI and level of satisfaction was measured by 7-point Likert scale. Glycemic fluctuation from paired iPro2 continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) obtained 4–6 weeks apart were also evaluated from a subset of patients with T1DM who switched from insulin glargine to insulin degludec.

Results A total of 55 patients (T2DM 76.4%, females 54.5%, mean age 57.1±16.1 years, duration of diabetes 16.7±8.8 years, BMI 27.3±5.5 kg/m ² , baseline A1C 9.3±2.3%, median duration of treatment 8 months) were included in the study. In T1DM patients (n=13), the overall mean A1C reduction at 12 months was 0.5% with minimal weight gain of 0.9 kgs at 12 months. In T2DM patients (n=42), the overall mean A1C reduction at 12 months was 0.8% with minimal weight loss of 0.4 kgs at 12 months. The proportion of T1DM patients who could achieve optimal glycemic control increased slightly from 14.3 to 18.2% but the proportion of T2DM patients who could achieve optimal glycemic control increased from 30.8 to 53.8%. Patient satisfaction showed a sustained improvement throughout the duration of study. In four T1DM patients who had paired CGM data, insulin degludec provided greater reductions in glycemic variability endpoints with increased time-in-range when compared with previous insulin glargine.

Discussion Our data suggested that the effectiveness of insulin degludec was consistent with the results seen in clinical trials with lower risk of patients-reported hypoglycemia, and a significant improvement in glycemic control. Patients also reported higher treatment satisfaction. More long-term and cost-effectiveness data are needed to establish the role of this ultra-long-acting insulin in real-world settings.

Challenges of Diabetes Care in Older People With Type 2 Diabetes and the Role of Basal Insulin

IN BRIEF The use of long-acting basal insulin analogs is a recommended strategy in older people with diabetes because of their lower risk of hypoglycemia compared to intermediate-acting insulins. In this article, we review the results from recent clinical trials of second-generation basal insulin preparations. We conclude that, although these preparations have improved the management of insulin-requiring older people with type 2 diabetes, there is a need for additional and more specific studies to address the complexities of hyperglycemia management in this population.

Diabetes Treatment in the Elderly: Incorporating Geriatrics, Technology, and Functional Medicine

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The current approach to diabetes in the elderly incorporates components from the comprehensive geriatric approach. The most updated guidelines from the American Diabetes Association reflect influence from the consensus made in 2012 with the American Geriatrics Society. Notably, the framework included the evaluation for geriatric syndromes (falls and urinary incontinence), functional and cognitive abilities. The goal for this review is to provide an updated summary of treatment strategies for community-dwelling older adults. We identified the need to expand our approach by addressing innovative approaches and scientific concepts from telemedicine, functional medicine, and geriatrics.

RECENT FINDINGS

Findings on cardiovascular protection with sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT-2i) and some glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RA) support their use for older patients with diabetes. However, careful consideration for agent selection must incorporate the presence of geriatric issues, such as geriatric syndromes, or functional and cognitive decline, as they could increase the risk and impact adverse reactions. Telemedicine interventions can improve communication and connection between older patients and their providers, and improve glycemic control. Functional medicine concepts can offer additional adjuvant strategies to support the therapeutic interventions and management of diabetes in the elderly. A systematic review confirmed the efficacy and safety of metformin as first-line therapy of type 2 diabetes in the older adult, but multiple reports highlighted the risk for vitamin B12 deficiency. Randomized controlled trials showed the efficacy and safety of antihyperglycemic agents in the elderly, including some with longer duration and lesser risk for hypoglycemia. Randomized clinical trials showed cardiovascular protection with SGLT-2i (empagliflozin, canagliflozin) and GLP-1RA (liraglutide, semaglutide). The most current guidelines recommend addressing for geriatric syndromes, physical and cognitive function in the elderly, in order to individualize targets and therapeutic strategies. Clinicians managing diabetes in the elderly can play a major role for the early detection and evaluation of geriatric issues in their patients. Telemedicine interventions improve glycemic control, and certain functional medicine strategies could be adjuvant interventions to reduce inflammation and stress, but more studies focused on the elderly population are needed.

Impact of Insulin Degludec in Hospitalized Patients With and Without Type 2 Diabetes Requiring Parenteral/Enteral Nutrition: An Observational Study

INTRODUCTION

Hyperglycemia in inpatients is a major problem, especially when nutritional support is required. This study aims to assess the impact of treatment with insulin degludec (IDeg) on mean blood glucose (BG) and glycemic variability in noncritical hospitalized patients with and without type 2 diabetes (T2DM) receiving enteral and/or parenteral nutrition (EN, PN).

METHODS

Mean BG and glycemic variability from admission up to 7 days of hospitalization were evaluated in consecutive cases with and without T2DM. Percentage of coefficient of variation (CV) for glucose was used to express glycemic variability.

RESULTS

Overall, 26 patients (13 with and 13 without T2DM) were admitted to the hospital for any cause. Subjects were 65.4% men and they were mainly elderly (mean age 66.3 ± 13.4 years). PN was administered in 88.5% of patients and EN in 19.2%. At admission, mean HbA1c level was 5.9 ± 0.7% in patients without diabetes and 9.1 ± 2.5% in patients with T2DM. During hospitalization, mean daily BG levels changed from 151 ± 47.3 mg/dl (day 1) to 157 ± 66.7 mg/dl (day 7) in patients without diabetes and from 210 ± 66.5 mg/dl to 192 ± 48.6 mg/dl in patients with T2DM. CV decreased from 14% (day 1) to 11% (day 7) in patients without diabetes and from 20% (day 1) to 9% (day 7) in patients with T2DM. No symptomatic or severe hypoglycemia occurred.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the small sample size and the lack of control group, this study represents the first proof-of-concept that IDeg in hospitalized patients with or without T2DM who require nutritional support has the potential to maintain stable levels of BG and reduce glycemic variability.

FUNDING

Novo Nordisk S.p.A. grant.

Role of continuous glucose monitoring for type 2 in diabetes management and research

The advent of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) is a significant stride forward in our ability to better understand the glycemic status of our patients. Current clinical practice employs two forms of CGM: professional (retrospective or "masked") and personal (real-time) to evaluate and/or monitor glycemic control. Most studies using professional and personal CGM have been done in those with type 1 diabetes (T1D). However, this technology is agnostic to the type of diabetes and can also be used in those with type 2 diabetes (T2D). The value of professional CGM in T2D for physicians, patients, and researchers is derived from its ability to: (1) to discover previously unknown hyper- and hypoglycemia (silent and symptomatic); (2) measure glycemic control directly rather than through the surrogate metric of hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) permitting the observation of a wide variety of metrics that include glycemic variability, the percent of time within, below and above target glucose levels, the severity of hypo- and hyperglycemia throughout the day and night; (3) provide actionable information for healthcare providers derived by the CGM report; (4) better manage patients on hemodialysis; and (5) effectively and efficiently analyze glycemic effects of new interventions whether they be pharmaceuticals (duration of action, pharmacodynamics, safety, and efficacy), devices, or psycho-educational. Personal CGM has also been successfully used in a small number of studies as a behavior modification tool in those with T2D. This comprehensive review describes the differences between professional and personal CGM and the evidence for the use of each form of CGM in T2D. Finally, the opinions of key professional societies on the use of CGM in T2D are presented.