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Reddy AR, Gathers CA, Murosko DC, Rainer T, Naim MY, Fowler J. Health Disparities in the Management and Outcomes of Critically Ill Children and Neonates: A Scoping Review. Crit Care Clin 2024; 40:641-657. [PMID: 39218478 PMCID: PMC11369351 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccc.2024.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
To date, health disparities in critically ill children have largely been studied within, not across, specific intensive care unit (ICU) settings, thus impeding collaboration which may help advance the care of critically ill children. The aim of this scoping review is to summarize the literature intentionally designed to examine health disparities, across 3 primary ICU settings (neonatal ICU, pediatric ICU, and cardiac ICU) in the United States. We included over 50 studies which describe health disparities across race and/or ethnicity, area-level indices, insurance status, socioeconomic position, language, and distance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anireddy R Reddy
- Division of Critical Care, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3401 Civic Center Boulevard, Main Hospital, Ninth Floor, Room 9NW102, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Cody-Aaron Gathers
- Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Division of Critical Care, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3401 Civic Center Boulevard, Main Hospital, Ninth Floor, Suite 9NW45, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Daria C Murosko
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3401 Civic Center Boulevard, 2-Main, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Tyler Rainer
- Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Division of Emergency Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3501 Civic Center Boulevard, 2nd Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Maryam Y Naim
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Division of Cardiac Critical Care, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3401 Civic Center Boulevard, Main Hospital, Eighth Floor 8555, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jessica Fowler
- Division of Critical Care, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 3401 Civic Center Boulevard, Main Hospital, Ninth Floor, Room 9NW102, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Andrist E, Clarke RG, Phelps KB, Dews AL, Rodenbough A, Rose JA, Zurca AD, Lawal N, Maratta C, Slain KN. Understanding Disparities in the Pediatric ICU: A Scoping Review. Pediatrics 2024; 153:e2023063415. [PMID: 38639640 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2023-063415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Health disparities are pervasive in pediatrics. We aimed to describe disparities among patients who are likely to be cared for in the PICU and delineate how sociodemographic data are collected and categorized. METHODS Using MEDLINE as a data source, we identified studies which included an objective to assess sociodemographic disparities among PICU patients in the United States. We created a review rubric, which included methods of sociodemographic data collection and analysis, outcome and exposure variables assessed, and study findings. Two authors reviewed every study. We used the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities Research Framework to organize outcome and exposure variables. RESULTS The 136 studies included used variable methods of sociodemographic data collection and analysis. A total of 30 of 124 studies (24%) assessing racial disparities used self- or parent-identified race. More than half of the studies (52%) dichotomized race as white and "nonwhite" or "other" in some analyses. Socioeconomic status (SES) indicators also varied; only insurance status was used in a majority of studies (72%) evaluating SES. Consistent, although not uniform, disadvantages existed for racial minority populations and patients with indicators of lower SES. The authors of only 1 study evaluated an intervention intended to mitigate health disparities. Requiring a stated objective to evaluate disparities aimed to increase the methodologic rigor of included studies but excluded some available literature. CONCLUSIONS Variable, flawed methodologies diminish our understanding of disparities in the PICU. Meaningfully understanding and addressing health inequity requires refining how we collect, analyze, and interpret relevant data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Andrist
- Division of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine
- Departments of Pediatrics
| | - Rachel G Clarke
- Division of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, Upstate University Hospital, Syracuse, New York
- Center for Bioethics and Humanities, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, New York
| | - Kayla B Phelps
- Division of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Children's Hospital of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Alyssa L Dews
- Human Genetics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Susan B. Meister Child Health and Adolescent Research Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Anna Rodenbough
- Division of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, Children's Hospital of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jerri A Rose
- Pediatric Emergency Medicine
- Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Adrian D Zurca
- Division of Critical Care, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
- Department of Pediatrics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Nurah Lawal
- Stepping Stones Pediatric Palliative Care Program, C.S. Mott Children's Hospital, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Departments of Pediatrics
| | - Christina Maratta
- Department of Critical Care, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Interdepartmental Division of Critical Care
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Katherine N Slain
- Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital, Cleveland, Ohio
- Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
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Ichijima R, Ikehara H, Yamaguchi D, Nagata Y, Ogura K, Esaki M, Minoda Y, Ono H, Maeda Y, Kiriyama S, Sumiyoshi T, Kanmura Y, Gotoda T. Randomized controlled trial of remimazolam compared with placebo in Japanese patients undergoing upper gastrointestinal endoscopy: Phase III investigator-initiated clinical trial. Dig Endosc 2024. [PMID: 38403959 DOI: 10.1111/den.14758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess the effectiveness of remimazolam against normal saline (placebo) as a sedative agent for endoscopy in a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, investigator-initiated phase III controlled trial. METHODS We included 48 Japanese patients undergoing upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. For the procedure, an initial remimazolam dose of 3 mg and additional doses of 1 mg were administered, as determined in the phase II clinical study. The primary study end-point was the successful sedation rate during gastrointestinal endoscopy, determined as a Modified Observer's Assessment of Alertness/Sedation score ≤4 before the start of endoscopy, the completion of gastrointestinal endoscopy, and two or fewer additional doses per 6 min. RESULTS The successful endoscopy sedation rates were 91.9% and 9.1% in the remimazolam and placebo groups, respectively (P < 0.01). The time from the end of endoscopy to arousal was 0.0 (0.0-0.0) min for both groups. The number of additional doses required to achieve sedation was lower in the remimazolam group than that in the placebo group (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Remimazolam demonstrated a significantly higher sedation effect during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in Japanese patients with safe and fast recovery compared with placebo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryoji Ichijima
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Kiriyama Clinic, Gunma, Japan
| | - Hisatomo Ikehara
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Internal Medicine, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Daisuke Yamaguchi
- Department of Gastroenterology, National Hospital Organization Ureshino Medical Center, Saga, Japan
| | - Yasuhiko Nagata
- Department of Gastroenterology, Nagata Surgery and Gastroenterological Clinic, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kanako Ogura
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Nagata Surgery and Gastroenterological Clinic, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mitsuru Esaki
- Department of Medicine and Bioregulatory Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yosuke Minoda
- Department of Medicine and Bioregulatory Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Ono
- Division of Endoscopy, Shizuoka Cancer Center, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Yuki Maeda
- Division of Endoscopy, Shizuoka Cancer Center, Shizuoka, Japan
| | | | | | - Yuichi Kanmura
- Department of Anesthesiology, Fujimoto General Hospital, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - Takuji Gotoda
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Cancer Institute Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
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Ramadurai D, Kohn R, Hart JL, Scott S, Kerlin MP. Associations of Race With Sedation Depth Among Mechanically Ventilated Adults: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Crit Care Explor 2023; 5:e0996. [PMID: 38304704 PMCID: PMC10833636 DOI: 10.1097/cce.0000000000000996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To evaluate the association of race with proportion of time in deep sedation among mechanically ventilated adults. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study from October 2017 to December 2019. SETTING Five hospitals within a single health system. PATIENTS Adult patients who identified race as Black or White who were mechanically ventilated for greater than or equal to 24 hours in one of 12 medical, surgical, cardiovascular, cardiothoracic, or mixed ICUs. INTERVENTIONS None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS The exposure was White compared with Black race. The primary outcome was the proportion of time in deep sedation during the first 48 hours of mechanical ventilation, defined as Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale values of -3 to -5. For the primary analysis, we performed mixed-effects linear regression models including ICU as a random effect, and adjusting for age, sex, English as preferred language, body mass index, Elixhauser comorbidity index, Laboratory-based Acute Physiology Score, Version 2, ICU admission source, admission for a major surgical procedure, and the presence of septic shock. Of the 3337 included patients, 1242 (37%) identified as Black, 1367 (41%) were female, and 1002 (30%) were admitted to a medical ICU. Black patients spent 48% of the first 48 hours of mechanical ventilation in deep sedation, compared with 43% among White patients in unadjusted analysis. After risk adjustment, Black race was significantly associated with more time in early deep sedation (mean difference, 5%; 95% CI, 2-7%; p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS There are disparities in sedation during the first 48 hours of mechanical ventilation between Black and White patients across a diverse set of ICUs. Future work is needed to determine the clinical significance of these findings, given the known poorer outcomes for patients who experience early deep sedation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepa Ramadurai
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Palliative and Advanced Illness Research (PAIR) Center, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Rachel Kohn
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Palliative and Advanced Illness Research (PAIR) Center, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Joanna L Hart
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Palliative and Advanced Illness Research (PAIR) Center, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Stefania Scott
- Palliative and Advanced Illness Research (PAIR) Center, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Meeta Prasad Kerlin
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Palliative and Advanced Illness Research (PAIR) Center, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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Darby A, Cleveland Manchanda EC, Janeway H, Samra S, Hicks MN, Long R, Gipson KA, Chary AN, Adjei BA, Khanna K, Pierce A, Kaltiso SAO, Spadafore S, Tsai J, Dekker A, Thiessen ME, Foster J, Diaz R, Mizuno M, Schoenfeld E. Race, racism, and antiracism in emergency medicine: A scoping review of the literature and research agenda for the future. Acad Emerg Med 2022; 29:1383-1398. [PMID: 36200540 DOI: 10.1111/acem.14601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objective was to conduct a scoping review of the literature and develop consensus-derived research priorities for future research inquiry in an effort to (1) identify and summarize existing research related to race, racism, and antiracism in emergency medicine (EM) and adjacent fields and (2) set the agenda for EM research in these topic areas. METHODS A scoping review of the literature using PubMed and EMBASE databases, as well as review of citations from included articles, formed the basis for discussions with community stakeholders, who in turn helped to inform and shape the discussion and recommendations of participants in the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine (SAEM) consensus conference. Through electronic surveys and two virtual meetings held in April 2021, consensus was reached on terminology, language, and priority research questions, which were rated on importance or impact (highest, medium, lower) and feasibility or ease of answering (easiest, moderate, difficult). RESULTS A total of 344 articles were identified through the literature search, of which 187 met inclusion criteria; an additional 34 were identified through citation review. Findings of racial inequities in EM and related fields were grouped in 28 topic areas, from which emerged 44 key research questions. A dearth of evidence for interventions to address manifestations of racism in EM was noted throughout. CONCLUSIONS Evidence of racism in EM emerged in nearly every facet of our literature. Key research priorities identified through consensus processes provide a roadmap for addressing and eliminating racism and other systems of oppression in EM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Darby
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Los Angeles County and University of Southern California Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | | | - Hannah Janeway
- Department of EM, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Shamsher Samra
- Department of EM, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Marquita Norman Hicks
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Ruby Long
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Katrina A Gipson
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Anita N Chary
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Brenda A Adjei
- National Cancer Institute Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Kajal Khanna
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California, USA
| | - Ava Pierce
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Sheri-Ann O Kaltiso
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Sophia Spadafore
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jennifer Tsai
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Annette Dekker
- Department of EM, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Molly E Thiessen
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Jordan Foster
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Rose Diaz
- Department of EM, David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Mikaela Mizuno
- University of California, Riverside School of Medicine, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Elizabeth Schoenfeld
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School-Baystate, Springfield, Massachusetts, USA
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Carlton EF, Donnelly JP, Prescott HC, Asaro LA, Barbaro RP, Watson RS, Curley MAQ. School and Work Absences After Critical Care Hospitalization for Pediatric Acute Respiratory Failure: A Secondary Analysis of a Cluster Randomized Trial. JAMA Netw Open 2021; 4:e2140732. [PMID: 34940862 PMCID: PMC8703244 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.40732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Patients who survive pediatric critical illness and their caregivers commonly experience physical, emotional, and cognitive sequelae. However, the rate and duration of school absence among patients and work absence among their caregivers are unknown. OBJECTIVE To determine the rates and duration of school absence among children who survived hospitalization with acute respiratory failure and work absence among their caregivers. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS The Randomized Evaluation of Sedation Titration for Respiratory Failure (RESTORE) cluster randomized trial included 2449 children from 31 sites to protocolized sedation (intervention) vs usual care (control) from June 6, 2009, to December 2, 2013. In total, 1360 children survived hospitalization and were selected for follow-up at 6 months after pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) discharge, which was completed from January 12, 2010, to April 13, 2015. This secondary analysis was conducted from July 1, 2020, to September 30, 2021. EXPOSURES PICU hospitalization for acute respiratory failure, including invasive mechanical ventilation. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Postdischarge assessments with caregivers of eligible participants at 6 months after PICU discharge, including questions about school and work absence. Risk factors associated with longer absence from school and work were identified. RESULTS Postdischarge assessments were completed for 960 children who survived treatment for acute respiratory failure, of whom 443 (46.1%) were girls and 517 (53.9%) were boys; 509 of 957 (53.2%) were non-Hispanic White. Median age was 1.8 years (IQR, 0.4-7.9 years). In total, 399 children (41.6%) were enrolled in school, of whom 279 (69.9%) missed school after discharge. Median duration of postdischarge absence was 9.1 days (IQR, 0-27.9 days) among all children enrolled in school and 16.9 days (IQR, 7.9-43.9 days) among the 279 children with postdischarge absence. Among 960 primary caregivers, 506 (52.7%) were employed outside the home, of whom 277 (54.7%) missed work. Median duration of postdischarge work absence was 2 days (IQR, 0-10 days) among all employed primary caregivers, and 8 days (IQR, 4-20 days) among the 277 caregivers who missed work after discharge. The odds of postdischarge school absence and greater duration of absence increased for children 5 years or older (compared with 0-4 years, odds ratios [ORs] for 5-8 years, 3.20 [95% CI, 1.69-6.05] and 2.09 [95% CI, 1.30-3.37], respectively; ORs for 9-12 years, 2.49 [95% CI, 1.17-5.27] and 2.32 [95% CI, 1.30-4.14], respectively; and ORs for 13-18 years, 2.37 [95% CI, 1.20-4.66] and 1.89 [95% CI, 1.11-3.24], respectively) and those with a preexisting comorbidity (ORs, 1.90 [95% CI, 1.10-3.29] and 1.76 [95% CI, 1.14-2.69], respectively). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE In this secondary analysis of a cluster randomized trial, 2 in 3 children hospitalized for acute respiratory failure missed school after discharge, for a median duration of nearly 2 weeks. In addition, more than half of primary caregivers missed work after discharge. The magnitude of school absenteeism suggests that children may be at increased risk for lower educational achievement, economic hardship, and poor health outcomes in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin F. Carlton
- Division of Critical Care Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
- Susan B. Meister Child Health Evaluation and Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - John P. Donnelly
- Department of Learning Health Sciences, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor
| | - Hallie C. Prescott
- Veterans Affairs Center for Clinical Management Research, Health Service Research and Development Center of Innovation, Ann Arbor, Michigan
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - Lisa A. Asaro
- Department of Cardiology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ryan P. Barbaro
- Division of Critical Care Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
- Susan B. Meister Child Health Evaluation and Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
| | - R. Scott Watson
- Division of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle
- Center for Child Health, Behavior, and Development, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
| | - Martha A. Q. Curley
- Family and Community Health, School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
- Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
- Research Institute, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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