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Bawm S, Chel HM, Khaing Y, Hmoon MM, Thein SS, Win SY, Soe NC, Thaw YN, Hayashi N, Win MM, Htun LL, Nonaka N, Katakura K, Nakao R. The strong influence of management factors on coccidian infections in smallholder pig farms and the first molecular identification of Cystoisospora suis in Myanmar. Parasite 2022; 29:1. [PMID: 35089127 PMCID: PMC8796702 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2022006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate coccidian infection and associated factors in smallholder pigs, and to identify Cystoisospora oocysts by PCR. A total of 500 pig faecal samples from 330 smallholder farms were collected in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar. The faecal flotation method was used to identify Eimeria and Cystoisospora species, and oocyst counts per gram (OPG) of faeces were recorded. Oocysts were differentiated after sporulation. Oocyst DNA was subjected to ITS1-targeted Cystoisospora-specific PCR. The overall coccidian oocyst detection rate by microscopic was 89.0% (445/500). Among the studied samples, 74.0% (370/500) and 70.6% (353/500), were found to be positive with Eimeria spp. and Cystoisospora suis oocysts, respectively. The sequences of C. suis detected were 100% identical to those of C. suis reported from Japan, and had 99.5% resemblance to sequences from Australia and China. Weaner pigs showed the significantly highest (p < 0.05) OPG when compared to other age groups. The highest intensity of coccidian infection (p < 0.05) was found in pigs fed local feed, pigs raised on earthen floors and pigs under poor hygienic conditions. Factors such as age, breed, feed type, and housing floors were found to be significantly associated with coccidian infection (p < 0.05). Age, as well as management factors including floor type, feed type, and hygiene practices on the farm, had a strong influence on the occurrence of coccidian infection in pigs. This is the first study in Myanmar on coccidian infection in pigs and molecular detection of C. suis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saw Bawm
- Department of International Relations and Information Technology, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar - Department of Pharmacology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Hla Myet Chel
- Department of Pharmacology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Yadanar Khaing
- Department of International Relations and Information Technology, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Myint Myint Hmoon
- Department of Pharmacology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Su Su Thein
- Department of Pharmacology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Shwe Yee Win
- Department of Pharmacology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Nyein Chan Soe
- Department of Pharmacology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Yu Nandi Thaw
- Department of Pharmacology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Naoki Hayashi
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan
| | - Mar Mar Win
- Rector office, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Lat Lat Htun
- Department of Pharmacology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary Science, Yezin, Nay Pyi Taw 15013, Myanmar
| | - Nariaki Nonaka
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan
| | - Ken Katakura
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan
| | - Ryo Nakao
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Graduate School of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan
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García A, Fox JG. A One Health Perspective for Defining and Deciphering Escherichia coli Pathogenic Potential in Multiple Hosts. Comp Med 2021; 71:3-45. [PMID: 33419487 PMCID: PMC7898170 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-20-000054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
E. coli is one of the most common species of bacteria colonizing humans and animals. The singularity of E. coli 's genus and species underestimates its multifaceted nature, which is represented by different strains, each with different combinations of distinct virulence factors. In fact, several E. coli pathotypes, or hybrid strains, may be associated with both subclinical infection and a range of clinical conditions, including enteric, urinary, and systemic infections. E. coli may also express DNA-damaging toxins that could impact cancer development. This review summarizes the different E. coli pathotypes in the context of their history, hosts, clinical signs, epidemiology, and control. The pathotypic characterization of E. coli in the context of disease in different animals, including humans, provides comparative and One Health perspectives that will guide future clinical and research investigations of E. coli infections.
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Key Words
- aa, aggregative adherence
- a/e, attaching and effacing
- aepec, atypical epec
- afa, afimbrial adhesin
- aida-i, adhesin involved in diffuse adherence
- aiec, adherent invasive e. coli
- apec, avian pathogenic e. coli
- atcc, american type culture collection
- bfp, bundle-forming pilus
- cd, crohn disease
- cdt, cytolethal distending toxin gene
- clb, colibactin
- cnf, cytotoxic necrotizing factor
- cs, coli surface (antigens)
- daec, diffusely adhering e. coli
- db, dutch belted
- eae, e. coli attaching and effacing gene
- eaec, enteroaggregative e. coli
- eaf, epec adherence factor (plasmid)
- eahec, entero-aggregative-hemorrhagic e. coli
- east-1, enteroaggregative e. coli heat-stable enterotoxin
- e. coli, escherichia coli
- ed, edema disease
- ehec, enterohemorrhagic e. coli
- eiec, enteroinvasive e. coli
- epec, enteropathogenic e. coli
- esbl, extended-spectrum β-lactamase
- esp, e. coli secreted protein
- etec, enterotoxigenic e. coli
- expec, extraintestinal pathogenic e. coli
- fyua, yersiniabactin receptor gene
- gi, gastrointestinal
- hly, hemolysin
- hus, hemolytic uremic syndrome
- ibd, inflammatory bowel disease
- la, localized adherence
- lee, locus of enterocyte effacement
- lpf, long polar fimbriae
- lt, heat-labile (enterotoxin)
- mlst, multilocus sequence typing
- ndm, new delhi metallo-β-lactamase
- nzw, new zealand white
- pap, pyelonephritis-associated pilus
- pks, polyketide synthase
- sfa, s fimbrial adhesin
- slt, shiga-like toxin
- st, heat-stable (enterotoxin)
- stec, stx-producing e. coli
- stx, shiga toxin
- tepec, typical epec
- upec, uropathogenic e. coli
- uti, urinary tract infection
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis García
- Molecular Sciences Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico; Division of Comparative Medicine, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Division of Comparative Medicine, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts;,
| | - James G Fox
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Araújo HGD, Silva JTD, Sarmento WF, Silva SDS, Bezerra RA, Azevedo SS, Vilela VLR. Diversity of enteric coccidia in pigs from the Paraíba Semiarid Region of Northeastern Brazil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 29:e009120. [PMID: 33053055 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612020079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
There is great diversity in swine coccidia, which are responsible for causing intestinal disorders ranging from sporadic diarrhea to severe cases of hemorrhagic enteritis. Thus, determining the species of coccidia that affect the animals of a region and associating them with the characteristics of the farms become extremely important. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of coccidia parasites in pigs reared in a family farming production system in the Semiarid Region of the State of Paraíba, Northeast Brazil. Fecal samples for analysis were collected from 187 pigs on 51 farms. For morphological analysis, 1,590 sporulated oocysts were used. The prevalence of oocysts in fecal samples was 56.6% (106/187). The most prevalent species were Eimeria suis (21.9%), followed by Eimeria neodebliecki (16.6%), Eimeria perminuta (14.9%), Eimeria polita (12.8%), Eimeria debliecki (10.6%), Eimeria porci (10.1%), Cystoisospora suis (3.7%), Eimeria scabra (1.6%) and Eimeria cerdonis (0.5%). It can be concluded that pigs from the Semiarid Region of the State of Paraíba were parasitized by a diversity of coccidia species, mainly of the genus Eimeria, and predominantly presented with mixed infections occurring in the subclinical form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hosaneide Gomes de Araújo
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande - UFCG, Patos, PB, Brasil
| | | | | | - Samara Dos Santos Silva
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba - IFPB, Sousa, PB, Brasil
| | - Roberto Alves Bezerra
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba - IFPB, Sousa, PB, Brasil
| | - Sérgio Santos Azevedo
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande - UFCG, Patos, PB, Brasil
| | - Vinícius Longo Ribeiro Vilela
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciência Animal, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande - UFCG, Patos, PB, Brasil.,Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Instituto Federal da Paraíba - IFPB, Sousa, PB, Brasil
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Hinney B, Cvjetković V, Espigares D, Vanhara J, Waehner C, Ruttkowski B, Selista R, Sperling D, Joachim A. Cystoisospora suis Control in Europe Is Not Always Effective. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:113. [PMID: 32195274 PMCID: PMC7064465 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
After introduction of the anticoccidial toltrazuril for the metaphylactic treatment of suckling piglet coccidiosis, only few field evaluations on the effect of treatment against the causative agent, Cystoisospora suis, were performed. In 2018, a field study was conducted to detect the presence of the parasite on pig farms in four different European countries, and to evaluate management parameters possibly associated with infection and disease. A total of 49 farms from Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Spain were included. Repeated pooled fecal samples from 603 litters were taken in the 2nd and 3rd week of life. Samples were examined by autofluorescence for the presence of C. suis, and fecal consistency was scored. For each farm a questionnaire was provided to document management and treatment history. Feces scored as diarrhoeic were not significantly more often positive for C. suis than non-diarrhoeic feces but samples from litters with previously reported occurrence of diarrhea were significantly more often positive (p = 0.000). Pasty feces were significantly more often positive than those of other consistency (p = 0.005). Overall, 71.4% of the farms and 50.1% of the litters were positive for C. suis at least once. The prevalence on the farms reached up to 100%. Diarrhea was seen in samples from 53.1% of the farms (9.6% of the litters). Cystoisospora suis was diagnosed on 80.8% of the farms with vs. 60.8% of those without diarrhea. Toltrazuril was applied on 30 farms, and of these 53.3% had diarrhoeic samples and 66.7% were positive for C. suis vs. 19 farms that did not use toltrazuril with 52.6% diarrhoeic and 79.0% C. suis positive samples (p > 0.05). Only on two farms a disinfectant with activity against coccidia was used, and C. suis was not detected there. Current control of C. suis appears to be insufficient on the majority of the examined farms. These findings highlight the importance of correct application of medication, and an effective hygiene management. To maintain effective parasite control, efficacy monitoring of the control measures should be implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Hinney
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | | | | | - Bärbel Ruttkowski
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Radinka Selista
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Anja Joachim
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Joachim A, Ruttkowski B, Palmieri N. Microsatellite Analysis of Geographically Close Isolates of Cystoisospora suis. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:96. [PMID: 31001546 PMCID: PMC6454066 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Microsatellites are short repetitive DNA sequences of 2–6 repeats interspersed in the genome that display a rapid mutation rate and consequently show high variation between individuals or populations. They have been used to characterize population diversity and structure and the level of variation between different isolates of a number of different organisms, including apicomplexan protozoa. Currently nothing is known about the genetic variability and population structure of Cystoisospora suis (Apicomplexa: Coccidia), the causative agent of piglet coccidiosis, and we made use of the recently available genome of C. suis (strain Wien-I) to amplify microsatellite regions (ca. 300–550 bp) and evaluate the applicability of fluorescence-labeled primers to investigate amplicon length variation at high resolution using capillary electrophoresis (CE). Two phenotypically characterized isolates (Wien-I, toltrazuril susceptible; Holl 1 toltrazuril resistant) and six field isolates from Europe were compared by conventional PCR followed by agar-gel electrophoresis, Sanger sequencing, and CE (fluorescence labeling and fragment length analysis) to evaluate the applicability of the method. Four primer pairs could be identified that amplified bands of the expected size and were labeled for CE analysis. High resolution CE for size determination of PCR amplicons proved to be a reliable and simple method. It revealed high diversity of the analyzed strains, with marked differences even between two strains from neighboring swine farms. In follow-up studies, adaptation of the PCR assay to multiplexing and amplification of small DNA quantities will provide a cost-effective tool to analyse field strains to reveal geographic diversity that could be mapped to phenotypic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Joachim
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Bärbel Ruttkowski
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicola Palmieri
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Unterweger C, Schwarz L, Viehmann M, von Altrock A, Gerlach GF, Waldmann KH, Joachim A, Hennig-Pauka I. Treatment With Probiotic Bacteria Does Not Diminish the Impact of a Cystoisospora suis Challenge in Suckling Piglets. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:313. [PMID: 30619896 PMCID: PMC6299013 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Colonization of newborn piglets with beneficial and ubiquitous microorganisms in combination with colostral passive immunity is the prerequisite for development of immunity and gut maturation. In this study living strains of Clostridium perfringens type A (CpA) and non-pathogenic Escherichia (E.) coli strains harvested from healthy piglets were administered to piglets prior to first colostrum intake in order to prevent disease caused by pathogenic variants of the same bacterial species by competitive exclusion. In addition, it was investigated whether these potential beneficial colonizers were able to prevent harmful effects of infection with Cystoisospora (C.) suis as a primary invasive pathogen. In a first trial, half of the piglets from four litters were treated with a bacterial cocktail consisting of two E. coli and four CpA strains immediately after birth on two consecutive days, while the other half of the litters served as control group. In a second trial, piglets were treated following the protocol of the first trial, and additionally all piglets were infected 4 h after the end of littering with ~1,000 sporulated oocysts of a C. suis laboratory strain. General health, body weight development, fecal consistency and, in the second trial, oocyst excretion were monitored from birth until weaning. No adverse effects of the cocktail on the health status were observed. Treated piglets of the first trial showed a higher average daily weight gain until weaning. In the second trial, no significant differences were found with respect to average daily weight gain, fecal consistency, amount, and duration of oocyst excretion assessed in daily samples. In treatment group 51.1% and in the control group 38.5% of the fecal samples were positive for oocysts in autofluorescence. The average duration of oocyst excretion was longer in treatment group (7.7 days) than in control group (5.6 days). Application of bacterial cocktail could not effectively minimize disease symptoms caused by C. suis. There was a trend toward an increase in severity of disease symptoms in treated pigs, suggesting that the synergism between CpA and C. suis was independent of the bacterial strains, but is exclusively dominated by the pathogenic effect of C. suis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Unterweger
- Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University Clinic for Swine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lukas Schwarz
- Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University Clinic for Swine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Miriam Viehmann
- Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University Clinic for Swine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexandra von Altrock
- Clinic for Swine, Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | | | - Karl-Heinz Waldmann
- Clinic for Swine, Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hanover, Germany
| | - Anja Joachim
- Department for Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Isabel Hennig-Pauka
- Field Station for Epidemiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bakum, Germany
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Sevá ADP, Pena HFDJ, Nava A, Sousa AOD, Holsback L, Soares RM. Endoparasites in domestic animals surrounding an Atlantic Forest remnant, in São Paulo State, Brazil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 27:13-19. [PMID: 29641793 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612017078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Morro do Diabo State Park (MDSP) is a significant remnant of the Atlantic Rain Forest in Brazil and is surrounded by rural properties. In that area, wild and domestic animals and humans are in close contact, which facilitates the two-way flow of infectious diseases among them. We assessed endoparasites in domestic livestock from all rural properties surrounding MDSP. There were sampled 197 cattle, 37 horses, 11 sheep, 25 swine, 21 dogs, one cat and 62 groups of chickens from 10 large private properties and 75 rural settlements. Eimeria spp. was present in almost all hosts, excepted in horses, dogs and cats. Giardia cysts were present only in cattle. Nematodes were found in swine, ruminants and horses in high prevalence. Ancylostoma, Toxocara and Sarcocystis were found in dogs. Chickens were found with coccidia, Ascaridida and Capillaria spp.. These parasites can cause malnutrition and reproductive disorders for their hosts. Strategies to prevent and control the spread of endoparasites can improve wildlife, animal and human health in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anaiá da Paixão Sevá
- Laboratório de Epidemiologia e Bioestatística, Departamento de Medicina Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Hilda Fátima de Jesus Pena
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Departamento de Medicina Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Alessandra Nava
- Instituto Leonidas & Maria Deane, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - FIOCRUZ, Manaus, AM, Brasil
| | - Amanda Oliveira de Sousa
- Laboratório de Epidemiologia e Bioestatística, Departamento de Medicina Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Luciane Holsback
- Setor de Veterinária e Produção Animal, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Estadual do Norte do Paraná - UENP, Bandeirantes, PR, Brasil
| | - Rodrigo Martins Soares
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Departamento de Medicina Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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Suzuki T, Shibahara T, Yamaguchi R, Nakade K, Yamamoto T, Miyazaki A, Ohashi S. Pig epidemic diarrhoea virus S gene variant with a large deletion non-lethal to colostrum-deprived newborn piglets. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:1823-1828. [PMID: 27226332 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously identified a third porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) S variant with a large deletion of 582 nucleotides in the 5' terminal region of the S gene, in addition to the North American type and the S INDELs type. To investigate the pathogenicity of this variant, TTR-2/JPN/2014, we performed experimental infection using colostrum-deprived piglets and compared the results with those from the North American type PEDV, OKN-1/JPN/2013. Fifteen newborn piglets were divided into two groups of 7-8 piglets each and inoculated orally with one of PEDV isolates maintained at the eighth passage in Vero cell culture. Although all PEDV-inoculated piglets showed acute watery diarrhoea, lethality clearly differed between both PEDV-inoculated groups. Moreover, there were differences in virus distribution and lesions on the intestines between the two PEDV-inoculated groups. Therefore, our data suggest that the OKN-1/JPN/2013 PEDV isolate is virulent, whereas the TTR-2/JPN/2014 PEDV isolate is avirulent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohru Suzuki
- Viral Disease and Epidemiology Research Division, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Tomoyuki Shibahara
- Pathology and Pathophysiology Research Division, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Ryosaku Yamaguchi
- Institute of Animal Health, National Federation of Agricultural Co-operative Associations, Sakura, Japan
| | | | - Takehisa Yamamoto
- Viral Disease and Epidemiology Research Division, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Ayako Miyazaki
- Viral Disease and Epidemiology Research Division, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Seiichi Ohashi
- Viral Disease and Epidemiology Research Division, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsukuba, Japan
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